Implementation of Home based management of malaria in children reduces the work load for peripheral health facilities in a rural district of Burkina Faso

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Home Management of Malaria (HMM) is one of the key strategies to reduce the burden of malaria for vulnerable population in endemic countries. It is based on the evidence that well-trained communities health workers can provide prompt and adequate care to patients close to their homes. The strategy has been shown to reduce malaria mortality and severe morbidity and has been adopted by the World Health Organization as a cornerstone of malaria control in Africa. However, the potential fall-out of this community-based strategy on the work burden at the peripheral health facilities level has never been investigated.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>A two-arm interventional study was conducted in a rural health district of Burkina Faso. The HMM strategy has been implemented in seven community clinics catchment's area (intervention arm). For the other seven community clinics in the control arm, no HMM intervention was implemented. In each of the study arms, presumptive treatment was provided for episodes of fevers/malaria (defined operationally as malaria).</p> <p>The study drug was artemether-lumefantrine, which was sold at a subsidized price by community health workers/Key opinion leaders at the community level and by the pharmacists at the health facility level.</p> <p>The outcome measured was the proportion of malaria cases among all health facility attendance (all causes diseases) in both arms throughout the high transmission season.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>A total of 7,621 children were enrolled in the intervention arm and 7,605 in the control arm. During the study period, the proportions of malaria cases among all health facility attendance (all causes diseases) were 21.0%, (445/2,111, 95% CI [19.3%–22.7%]) and 70.7% (2,595/3,671, 95% CI 68.5%–71.5%), respectively in the intervention and control arms (p << 0.0001). The relative risk ratio for a fever/malaria episode to be treated at the HF level was 30% (0.30 < RR < 0.32).</p> <p>The number of malaria episodes treated in the intervention arm was much higher than in the control arm (6,661 vs. 2,595), with malaria accounting for 87.4% of all disease episodes recorded in the intervention area and for 34.1% in the control area (P < 0.0001). Of all the malaria cases treated in the intervention arm, only 6.7% were treated at the health facility level.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>These findings suggest that implementation of HMM, by reducing the workload in health facilities, might contributes to an overall increase of the performance of the peripheral health facilities.</p

Clinical spectrum and severity of hemolytic anemia in glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase-deficient children receiving dapsone

Drug-induced acute hemolytic anemia led to the discovery of G6PD deficiency. However, most clinical data are from isolated case reports. In 2 clinical trials of antimalarial preparations containing dapsone (4,4′-diaminodiphenylsulfone; 2.5 mg/kg once daily for 3 days), 95 G6PD-deficient hemizygous boys, 24 G6PD-deficient homozygous girls, and 200 girls heterozygous for G6PD deficiency received this agent. In the first 2 groups, there was a maximum decrease in hemoglobin averaging -2.64 g/dL (range -6.70 to +0.30 g/dL), which was significantly greater than for the comparator group receiving artemether-lumefantrine (adjusted difference -1.46 g/dL; 95% confidence interval -1.76, -1.15). Hemoglobin concentrations were decreased by ≥ 40% versus pretreatment in 24/119 (20.2%) of the G6PD-deficient children; 13/119 (10.9%) required blood transfusion. In the heterozygous girls, the mean maximum decrease in hemoglobin was -1.83 g/dL (range +0.90 to -5.20 g/dL); 1 in 200 (0.5%) required blood transfusion. All children eventually recovered. All the G6PD-deficient children had the G6PD A- variant, ie, mutations V68MandN126D. Drug-induced acutehemolytic anemia in G6PD A- subjects can be life-threatening, depending on the nature and dosage of the drug trigger. Therefore, contrary to current perception, in clinical terms the A- type of G6PD deficiency cannot be regarded as mild. This study is registered at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00344006 and NCT00371735. © 2012 by The American Society of Hematology

Distance sampling for epidemiology: an interactive tool for estimating under-reporting of cases from clinic data

Background: Distance sampling methods are widely used in ecology to estimate and map the abundance of animal and plant populations from spatial survey data. The key underlying concept in distance sampling is the detection function, the probability of detecting the occurrence of an event as a function of its distance from the observer, as well as other covariates that may influence detection. In epidemiology, the burden and distribution of infectious disease is often inferred from cases that are reported at clinics and hospitals. In areas with few public health facilities and low accessibility, the probability of detecting a case is also a function of the distance between an infected person and the “observer” (e.g. a health centre). While the problem of distance-related under-reporting is acknowledged in public health; there are few quantitative methods for assessing and correcting for this bias when mapping disease incidence. Here, we develop a modified version of distance sampling for prediction of infectious disease incidence by relaxing some of the framework’s fundamental assumptions. We illustrate the utility of this approach using as our example malaria distribution in rural Burkina Faso, where there is a large population at risk but relatively low accessibility of health facilities. Results: The modified distance-sampling framework was used to predict the probability of reporting malaria infection at 8 rural clinics, based on road-travel distances from villages. The rate at which reporting probability dropped with distance varied between clinics, depending on road and clinic positions. The probability of case detection was estimated as 0.3–1 in the immediate vicinity of the clinic, dropping to 0.1–0.6 at a travel distance of 10 km, and effectively zero at distances &gt; 30–40 km. Conclusions: To enhance the method’s strategic impact, we provide an interactive mapping tool (as a self-contained R Shiny app) that can be used by non-specialists to interrogate model outputs and visualize how the overall probability of under-reporting and the catchment area of each clinic is influenced by changing the number and spatial allocation of health centres

Clinical spectrum and severity of hemolytic anemia in glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase-deficient children receiving dapsone

Drug-induced acute hemolytic anemia led to the discovery of G6PD deficiency. However, most clinical data are from isolated case reports. In 2 clinical trials of antimalarial preparations containing dapsone (4,4′-diaminodiphenylsulfone; 2.5 mg/kg once daily for 3 days), 95 G6PD-deficient hemizygous boys, 24 G6PD-deficient homozygous girls, and 200 girls heterozygous for G6PD deficiency received this agent. In the first 2 groups, there was a maximum decrease in hemoglobin averaging -2.64 g/dL (range -6.70 to +0.30 g/dL), which was significantly greater than for the comparator group receiving artemether-lumefantrine (adjusted difference -1.46 g/dL; 95% confidence interval -1.76, -1.15). Hemoglobin concentrations were decreased by ≥ 40% versus pretreatment in 24/119 (20.2%) of the G6PD-deficient children; 13/119 (10.9%) required blood transfusion. In the heterozygous girls, the mean maximum decrease in hemoglobin was -1.83 g/dL (range +0.90 to -5.20 g/dL); 1 in 200 (0.5%) required blood transfusion. All children eventually recovered. All the G6PD-deficient children had the G6PD A- variant, ie, mutations V68MandN126D. Drug-induced acutehemolytic anemia in G6PD A- subjects can be life-threatening, depending on the nature and dosage of the drug trigger. Therefore, contrary to current perception, in clinical terms the A- type of G6PD deficiency cannot be regarded as mild. This study is registered at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00344006 and NCT00371735. © 2012 by The American Society of Hematology

Novel Genotyping Tools for Investigating Transmission Dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum

Background. Differentiation between gametocyte-producing Plasmodium falciparum clones depends on both high levels of stage-specific transcripts and high genetic diversity of the selected genotyping marker obtained by a high-resolution typing method. By analyzing consecutive samples of one host, the contribution of each infecting clone to transmission and the dynamics of gametocyte production in multiclone infections can be studied. Methods. We have evaluated capillary electrophoresis based differentiation of 6 length-polymorphic gametocyte genes. RNA and DNA of 25 µL whole blood from 46 individuals from Burkina Faso were simultaneously genotyped. Results. Highest discrimination power was achieved by pfs230 with 18 alleles, followed by pfg377 with 15 alleles. When assays were performed in parallel on RNA and DNA, 85.7% of all pfs230 samples and 59.5% of all pfg377 samples contained at least one matching genotype in DNA and RNA. Conclusions. The imperfect detection in both, DNA and RNA, was identified as major limitation for investigating transmission dynamics, owing primarily to the volume of blood processed and the incomplete representation of all clones in the sample tested. Abundant low-density gametocyte carriers impede clone detectability, which may be improved by analyzing larger volumes and detecting initially sequestered gametocyte clones in follow-up sample

Placental malaria and low birth weight in pregnant women living in a rural area of Burkina Faso following the use of three preventive treatment regimens

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The weekly chemoprophylaxis of malaria during pregnancy with chloroquine (CQ) has become problematic with the increasing resistance of <it>Plasmodium falciparum </it>to this drug. There was a need to test the benefits of new strategies over the classical chemoprophylaxis. This study was conducted to provide data to the National Malarial Control Programme for an evidence-based policy change decision making process. It compares the efficacy of two IPT regimens, using chloroquine (CQ) or sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine (SP), with the classical chemoprophylaxis regimen using CQ in reducing the adverse outcomes of malaria infection, for the mother and the foetus.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Pregnant women attending the first antenatal care visit were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment regimens. They were subsequently followed up till delivery. Maternal, placental and cord blood samples were obtained upon delivery to check for <it>P. falciparum </it>infection.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>A total of 648 pregnant women were enrolled in the study. Delivery outcome were available for 423 of them. Peripheral maternal <it>P. falciparum </it>infection at delivery was found in 25.8% of the women. The proportion of women with maternal infection was significantly lower in the IPTp/SP group than in the CQ group (P << 0.000). The prevalence of placental malaria was 18.8% in the CWC/CQ group; 15.9% in the IPTp/CQ group and 10.6% in the IPTp/SP group. The incidence of LBW (weigth < 2,500 g) was significantly higher among infants of mothers in the CWC/CQ group (23.9%) as compared with those of mothers in the IPTp/CQ (15.6%) and IPTp/SP (11.6%) groups (p = 0.02)</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Intermittent preventive treatment with SP has shown clear superiority in reducing adverse outcomes at delivery, as compared with intermittent preventive treatment with CQ and classical chemoprophylaxis with CQ.</p

Seasonal performance of a malaria rapid diagnosis test at community health clinics in a malaria-hyperendemic region of Burkina Faso

BACKGOUND: Treatment of confirmed malaria patients with Artemisinin-based Combination Therapy (ACT) at remote areas is the goal of many anti-malaria programs. Introduction of effective and affordable malaria Rapid Diagnosis Test (RDT) in remote areas could be an alternative tool for malaria case management. This study aimed to assess performance of the OptiMAL dipstick for rapid malaria diagnosis in children under five. METHODS: Malaria symptomatic and asymptomatic children were recruited in a passive manner in two community clinics (CCs). Malaria diagnosis by microscopy and RDT were performed. Performance of the tests was determined. RESULTS: RDT showed similar ability (61.2%) to accurately diagnose malaria as microscopy (61.1%). OptiMAL showed a high level of sensitivity and specificity, compared with microscopy, during both transmission seasons (high & low), with a sensitivity of 92.9% vs. 74.9% and a specificity of 77.2% vs. 87.5%. CONCLUSION: By improving the performance of the test through accurate and continuous quality control of the device in the field, OptiMAL could be suitable for use at CCs for the management and control of malaria

Treatment of asymptomatic carriers with artemether-lumefantrine: an opportunity to reduce the burden of malaria?

Background: Increased investment and commitment to malaria prevention and treatment strategies across Africa has produced impressive reductions in the incidence of this disease. Nevertheless, it is clear that further interventions will be necessary to meet the international target of a reversal in the incidence of malaria by 2015. This article discusses the prospective role of an innovative malaria control strategy - the community-based treatment of asymptomatic carriers of Plasmodium falciparum, with artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT). The potential of this intervention was considered by key scientists in the field at an Advisory Board meeting held in Basel, in April 2009. This article summarizes the discussions that took place among the participants. Presentation of the hypothesis: Asymptomatic carriers do not seek treatment for their infection and, therefore, constitute a reservoir of parasites and thus a real public-health risk. The systematic identification and treatment of individuals with asymptomatic P. falciparum as part of a surveillance intervention strategy should reduce the parasite reservoir, and if this pool is greatly reduced, it will impact disease transmission. Testing the hypothesis: This article considers the populations that could benefit from such a strategy and examines the ethical issues associated with the treatment of apparently healthy individuals, who represent a neglected public health risk. The potential for the treatment of asymptomatic carriers to impair the development of protective immunity, resulting in a \u27rebound\u27 and age escalation of malaria incidence, is also discussed. For policymakers to consider the treatment of asymptomatic carriers with ACT as a new tool in their malaria control programmes, it will be important to demonstrate that such a strategy can produce significant benefits, without having a negative impact on the efficacy of ACT and the health of the target population. Implications of the hypothesis: The treatment of asymptomatic carriers with ACT is an innovative and essential tool for breaking the cycle of infection in some transmission settings. Safe and effective medicines can save the lives of children, but the reprieve is only temporary so long as the mosquitoes can become re-infected from the asymptomatic carriers. With improvements in rapid diagnostic tests that allow easier identification of asymptomatic carriers, the elimination of the pool of parasites is within reach. © 2010 Ogutu et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd

Transplacental Transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in a Highly Malaria Endemic Area of Burkina Faso

Malaria congenital infection constitutes a major risk in malaria endemic areas. In this study, we report the prevalence of transplacental malaria in Burkina Faso. In labour and delivery units, thick and thin blood films were made from maternal, placental, and umbilical cord blood to determine malaria infection. A total of 1,309 mother/baby pairs were recruited. Eighteen cord blood samples (1.4%) contained malaria parasites (Plasmodium falciparum). Out of the 369 (28.2%) women with peripheral positive parasitemia, 211 (57.2%) had placental malaria and 14 (3.8%) had malaria parasites in their umbilical cord blood. The umbilical cord parasitemia levels were statistically associated with the presence of maternal peripheral parasitemia (OR = 9.24, P ≪ 0.001), placental parasitemia (OR = 10.74, P ≪ 0.001), high-density peripheral parasitemia (OR = 9.62, P ≪ 0.001), and high-density placental parasitemia (OR = 4.91, P = 0.03). In Burkina Faso, the mother-to-child transmission rate of malaria appears to be low

Age, Weight, and CYP2D6 Genotype Are Major Determinants of Primaquine Pharmacokinetics in African Children

Low-dose primaquine is recommended to prevent Plasmodium falciparum malaria transmission in areas threatened by artemisinin resistance and areas aiming for malaria elimination. Community treatment campaigns with artemisinin-based combination therapy in combination with the gametocytocidal primaquine dose target all age groups, but no studies thus far have assessed the pharmacokinetics of this gametocytocidal drug in African children. We recruited 40 children participating in a primaquine efficacy trial in Burkina Faso to study primaquine pharmacokinetics. These children received artemether-lumefantrine and either a 0.25- or a 0.40-mg/kg primaquine dose. Seven blood samples were collected from each participant for primaquine and carboxy-primaquine plasma levels determinations: one sample was collected before primaquine administration and six after primaquine administration according to partially overlapping sampling schedules. Physiological population pharmacokinetic modeling was used to assess the impact of weight, age, and CYP2D6 genotype on primaquine and carboxy-primaquine pharmacokinetics. Despite linear weight normalized dosing, the areas under the plasma concentration-time curves and the peak concentrations for both primaquine and carboxy-primaquine increased with age and body weight. Children who were CYP2D6 poor metabolizers had higher levels of the parent compound, indicating a lower primaquine CYP2D6-mediated metabolism. Our data indicate that primaquine and carboxy-primaquine pharmacokinetics are influenced by age, weight, and CYP2D6 genotype and suggest that dosing strategies may have to be reconsidered to maximize the transmission-blocking properties of primaquine.Peer reviewe