Antimicrobial Resistance in Human and Animal Pathogens in Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique and Tanzania: An Urgent Need of a Sustainable Surveillance System.

A review of the published and unpublished literature on bacterial resistance in human and animals was performed. Sixty-eight articles/reports from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia were reviewed. The majority of these articles were from Tanzania. There is an increasing trend in the incidence of antibiotic resistance; of major concern is the increase in multidrug- resistant Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholera, non-typhoid Salmonella and other pathogens responsible for nosocomial infections. The increase in methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers in the countries under review confirms the spread of these clones worldwide. Clinical microbiology services in these countries need to be strengthened in order to allow a coordinated surveillance for antimicrobial resistance and provide data for local treatment guidelines and for national policies to control antimicrobial resistance. While the present study does not provide conclusive evidence to associate the increasing trend in antibiotic resistance in humans with the use of antibiotics in animals, either as feed additives or veterinary prescription, we strongly recommend a one-health approach of systematic surveillance across the public and animal health sectors, as well as the adherence to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)-OIE (World Organization of animal Health) --WHO(World Health Organization) recommendations for non-human antimicrobial usage

Clients’ perceptions on Sulfadoxine-Pyrimethamine (SP) use as a first line anti-malarial drug in bagamoyo district, Tanzania September 2005

Objectives: To assess clients’ perceptions onSulfadoxine- Pyrimethamine (SP) use as a first line anti-malarial drug in Bagamoyo district, Tanzania and put forward intervention strategies based on the obtained findings. Design: Community based Cross-sectional descriptive study. Settings: Bagamoyo district in the Coastal region, Tanzania. Subjects: All individuals aged 15-49 who were present in the sampled households during the time of study. Results: More than half of the study population (52.1%) perceived SP as a bad drug, 44.5% of them thought that the drug was unsafe for use and 49.9% of them were not ready to use it for malaria treatment in future. However most of them had no knowledge on the drug itself, its course of action and the expected outcomes after using it. Recommendation: There is a great need for mass education regarding the drug, its actions, possible side effects and how to overcome these side effects if possible when introducing drugs that are recommended by the national guidelines and especially those that are widely used by the community like SP

Assessment of Quality Stability of Composite Flours Produced By Dar es Salaam SMEs

A study was conducted to assess quality stability of cereal flours processed by food processingSMEs in Dar es Salaam. This product is obtained by mixing various cereal grains and isconsidered as of higher nutritional values in Tanzania. The shelf-life was predicted bydetermining water activity (a w ) and moisture content (MC) levels and plotting the water sorptionisotherms (MSI). Ninety per cent of investigated samples (N=78) were found packaged in thematerials of various quality conditions. It was found that the packaging materials mostly used isplastic films (63%), paper packets/bags (26%), hard papers (3%), plastic jars (1%) andcombination of paper packets/boards inserted with plastic film (7%). Water sorption isothermswere plotted for single and multiple ingredient products. The highest levels of a w were observedfor products in paper bags with 0.63 (a w ) and 0.13 MC (kg water/kg solids). Plastic films andjars had intermediate levels at 0.52 (a w ) and 0.042 MC (kg water/kg solids), and combined paperpackets/boards with plastic films had lowest levels at 0.43 (a w ) and 0.038 MC (kg water/kgsolids) exhibiting highest stability of products packaged in these materials. Relative humidityand temperature at sampling locations ranged from 80 to 94% and 30 to 34oC, respectively.Multiple ingredient products showed the lowest a w and MC levels, whereas single ingredientflours possessed higher a w and MC values. Generally, the package system comprising paperboard (or hard paper/box) and plastic bag (plastic film) was the most stable followed by plasticfilms, and paper bag by far

Malaria Prevalence in Under Five Children Utilising Insecticide Treated Nets Through Voucher Scheme Programme in Mtwara Municipality

Objective: To determine the malaria prevalence in under five year old children, comparing those utilising with those not utilising insecticide treated nets in Mtwara Municipality.Design: Descriptive cross-sectional study.Setting: Five streets that were randomly selected in Mtwara Municipality.Subjects: Three hundred and ninety eight (398) under five year old  children.Results: In the 398 under five year old children in this study, 18(4.5%) and 20(5.0%) tested positive by RDT and microscopy, respectively. Of the 385 who always used Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs), 16 (4.2%) had malaria, compared to four among the 13 who rarely/or never used nets (30.8%). Thus there is a relationship between the use of the treated nets and prevalence of malaria (x2 P-value 0.002). Inspite of the decline in malaria prevalence anaemia remain a big problem as among those 378 who tested negative for malaria, 81% had haemoglobin level below normal (8 and 11g/dl).Conclusion: Malaria infection has been prevented by the ITNs in under five years children as the prevalence of malaria is only 4.2% among net users compared to 30.8% non net users. The ITNs are useful since the overall five percent prevalence of malaria is less than expected in Mtwara region which had the prevalence of 33.6 percent in 2007 and less to the overall national prevalence of seven percent in under fives in urban areas in 2009. Plasmodium falciparum species is still a notorious cause of the disease among under fives compared to other types, thus the preventive measures should scientifically target this species at large

A One Health Evaluation of the Southern African Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance

Rooted in the recognition that emerging infectious diseases occur at the interface of human, animal, and ecosystem health, the Southern African Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance (SACIDS) initiative aims to promote a trans-sectoral approach to address better infectious disease risk management in five countries of the Southern African Development Community. Nine years after SACIDS’ inception, this study aimed to evaluate the program by applying a One Health (OH) evaluation framework developed by the Network for Evaluation of One Health (NEOH). The evaluation included a description of the context and the initiative, illustration of the theory of change, identification of outputs and outcomes, and assessment of the One Healthness. The latter is the sum of characteristics that defines an integrated approach and includes OH thinking, OH planning, OH working, sharing infrastructure, learning infrastructure, and systemic organization. The protocols made available by NEOH were used to develop data collection protocols and identify the study design. The framework relies on a mixed methods approach by combining a descriptive and qualitative assessment with a semi-quantitative evaluation (scoring). Data for the analysis were gathered during a document review, in group and individual interviews and in an online survey. Operational aspects (i.e., OH thinking, planning, and working) were found to be balanced overall with the highest score in the planning dimension, whereas the infrastructure (learning infrastructure, systemic organization, and sharing infrastructure) was high for the first two dimensions, but low for sharing. The OH index calculated was 0.359, and the OH ratio calculated was 1.495. The program was praised for its great innovative energy in a difficult landscape dominated by poor infrastructure and its ability to create awareness for OH and enthuse people for the concept; training of people and networking. Shortcomings were identified regarding the balance of contributions, funds and activities across member countries in the South, lack of data sharing, unequal allocation of resources, top-down management structures, and limited horizontal collaboration. Despite these challenges, SACIDS is perceived to be an effective agent in tackling infectious diseases in an integrated manner

Project proposal for the El-Shadai Orphans Home (EOH) orphanage project

Orphans and vulnerable children are always confronted with immense psychological and social problems. As they grow older, they are also vulnerable to maltreatment (harassment and violence), economic and sexual abuse and exploitation, due to lack of care and protection. These risks and other vulnerabilities are also likely to harm their future livelihoods as well. A sustained commitment to protecting and improving the lives of these orphaned and vulnerable children is required so as to ensure that their needs are addressed through actions at the local level as well as at the higher levels, so that interventions made can achieve the widest possible impact. The El-Shadai Orphans Home (EOH) is a Community - Based Organization (CBO) based in Kibangu area, Ubungo ward in Kinondoni Municipality. The organization decided to set up a centre for orphans and other vulnerable children so as to address their problems at the community level. In view of the envisaged initial capital investment, the EOH with a technical support of Domina Rweyemamu (Mrs.), a student pursuing MSc. CED programme offered by the Southern New Hampshire University at the Open University of Tanzania pledged to develop a proposal to facilitate mobilization of required resources to implement EOH Orphanage Project. Moreover, the organization required the project proposal in order to ensure that the opinions, suggestions and views of stakeholders at different levels were taken into consideration prior to embarking on actual implementation of orphanage project. The general objective of the proposed project is to provide support to orphans and vulnerable children so as to enable them live a normal life like other children in the country. The project is largely aimed at providing care to the orphans and vulnerable children who do not have parents or guardians to look after them as well as assisting them to acquire basic education by supporting them attend nursery and primary schools. The EOH identified Gwata Ujembe Village in Mikese Ward, Morogoro District in Morogoro Region as a community were the centre will be established. A participatory approach was adopted in preparing this proposal. The process involved a survey in Gwanta Ujembe community were the orphanage centre will be set up. Besides the survey at the community level, discussions and consultations were as well made with officials in the Ministry of Labour, Youth Development and Sports which is responsible for social welfare. Other orphanages based in Dar es Salaam were visited to learn the way such facilities are operated. Others consulted were Engineers and Architects. Acquisition of land and construction of buildings for the centre is estimated at TShs. 148.00 million. Purchasing of furniture, equipment and recreational facilities for the centre is estimated to cost TShs. 79.00 million. Implementation of this project proposal has already started with the Gwata Ujembe Village Government contribution by allocating a total of 150 acres of land to the EOH organization to facilitate construction of buildings, play grounds. (Author abstract)Rweyemamu, D. (2005). Project proposal for the El-Shadai Orphans Home (EOH) orphanage project. Retrieved from http://academicarchive.snhu.eduMaster of Science (M.S.)School of Community Economic Developmen

Effects of Drying, Packaging Conditions and Storage Time on Proximate Composition of Chia Seeds (Salvia hispanica)

The effects of drying, packaging conditions and storage time on proximate composition of chia seeds were investigated. Chia seeds were dried at 63 °C for 30 min (low-temperature long time–LTLT) and at 75 °C for 30 s (high-temperature short time-HTST) using dry oven, air/vacuum-packed and stored for ten weeks. The effect of heat processing (drying) on chia seeds had significant difference (p < 0.05) in ash, fiber and fat contents while there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in moisture and protein contents. Except for fiber content, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in moisture, ash, fat and protein of chia seeds dried at LTLT and HTST before storage. During storage time, there was significant decrease of proximate composition of chia seeds and the decline was the lowest in raw chia seeds followed by seeds dried at HTST and the highest by seeds dried at LTLT. In both drying conditions, ash, fat and protein contents were significantly greater in vacuum than in air packaging although the impact was vice versa for moisture and fiber contents. On the expense of improved shelf life, palatability and digestibility expected as effect of drying, this study suggests HTST and vacuum packaging for storage of chia seeds. Keywords: Chia seeds; proximate composition; drying; packaging condition; storage

The role of Bahi swamp wetlands in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities

The study was conducted to assess the role of Bahi swamp resources in enhancing household food security and income of adjacent communities. Specifically, the study assessed the socioeconomic activities in the swamp with a potential contribution to local livelihoods, the contribution of the swamp in enhancing household food security and income and the level of local dependence on the swamp. Two villages (Makulu and Nagulo-Bahi)  were involved. Data were collected through questionnaire, PRA techniques(resource mapping, key informant interviews and focused group  discussions) and direct observation. Data were summarized and analysed using Microsoft Excel, SPSS and content analysis. Other data from  discussions were analysed through relative ranking. The socioeconomic activities with potential contribution to food security and income of adjacent communities in order of importance included crop cultivation, fishing,  livestock grazing and collection of thatching grasses. Cultivation of paddy rice contributed significantly to household food security generating 65.4% of total household food crop production compared to other crops grown in drier areas adjacent to the swamp. Fishing played a substantial contribution to household food security through household consumption of 10% of fish caught. For household income, sales of paddy rice from the swamp contributed 59.6% while fish sales contributed 36% of the total annual household income. Multiplier activities emerging during fishing season facilitate income to a wider group of communities. On average, 56.2% of the population depend on the swamp for daily socio-economic activities associated with generation of household food and income. The Bahi swamp and related products play a significant role in enhancing local livelihoods for the adjacent communities. Planning for  wise use of the swamp in respect of the dominant socioeconomic activities will likely improve its  contribution to livelihoods.Key words: Bahi swamps, food security, income, wetland