Disregarding the corpus: head-word and sense treatment in Shona monolingual lexicography

With specific reference to Shona monolingual lexicography, this article discusses how corpus-based lexicographers might, in some instances, decide not strictly to adhere to the corpus when it comes to headword and sense treatment. The writer is a member of the African Languages Research Institute (ALRI), formerly known as the African Languages Lexical (ALLEX) Project. ALRI is a nonfaculty interdisciplinary unit dedicated to research on and the development of African languages in Zimbabwe. The writer is part of the six-member team that compiled the now published Shona monolingual, synchronic, medium-sized and general-purpose dictionary Du-ramazwi Guru ReChiShona (2001). The article originates from the writer's experience of working on this dictionary. The article highlights the fact that being corpus-based does not necessarily imply being corpus-bound. Keywords: corpus, corpus-based, frequency, headword, lexicography, sense, shona, slang, synonym

To Call or Not to Call a Spade a Spade: The Dilemma of Treating 'Offensive' Terms in "Duramazwi Guru reChiShona*"

As noted by Béjoint (2000: 6), the main objective in dictionary-making is to define words and terms. This is especially the case if the fact is accepted that dictionaries are mostly con-sulted for word meaning and that, in the consultation process, the user hopes to acquire and/or verify certain information. However, as again noted by Jackson (1988), Landau (1984), Svénsen (1993) and Zgusta (1971), among others, the description of word meaning is one of the greatest difficulties with which the lexicographer has to cope. This article discusses some of the challenges facing lexicographers when defining 'offensive' headwords in a monolingual dictionary. It is based on experiences of defining such headwords for the general-purpose, medium-sized, synchronic, monolingual Shona dictionary, Duramazwi Guru reChiShona (henceforth DGC) (Chimhundu et al. 2001). DGC was compiled and edited by a six-member team of mother-tongue speakers of Shona who are researchers at the African Languages Research Institute (ALRI). The article also discusses some of the strategies the team of editors adopted as ways of dealing with offensive words in DGC. One such strategy is the use of euphemism in defining. Keywords: alri, culture, definition, theoretical definition, practical definition, dictionary, euphemism, lexicography, monolingual diction-ary, offensive headword, shon

Feasibility and acceptability of early infant male circumcision as an HIV prevention intervention in Zimbabwe

The overall aim of the research outlined in this PhD thesis is to assess the feasibility and acceptability of early infant male circumcision (EIMC) as an HIV prevention intervention in Zimbabwe in order to inform roll out. Mathematical modelling estimates that circumcising 1.9 million Zimbabwean men aged 15-49 by 2015 could avert 42% of new HIV infections that would have otherwise occurred by 2025. Since 2009, Zimbabwe has provided voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) to over 300,000 adult and adolescent men. In order to ensure that the protective effect of male circumcision is sustained in the longer-term, Zimbabwe intends to roll out EIMC alongside adult MC, starting 2015. Although EIMC’s effects on HIV will take longer to realise, infant circumcision is easier, safer and cheaper than adult MC. Further, EIMC may more effectively prevent HIV acquisition as the procedure is carried out before the individual becomes sexually active, negating the risk associated with acquisition or transmission of HIV during the healing period. Since large-scale EIMC for HIV prevention, or indeed for other reasons, has never been practised in Zimbabwe or more widely in Southern Africa, there are concerns around its feasibility and acceptability. Clearly, acceptability of infant MC will have a bearing on uptake, roll out and subsequent effectiveness in preventing HIV. In Zimbabwe, there are also concerns about the feasibility of rolling out EIMC for HIV prevention within the context of existing health services, many of which are already overburdened and understaffed. The PhD research is in two phases. The first phase describes a systematic review and thematic synthesis I conducted to explore parental reasons for non-adoption of infant MC for HIV prevention in sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, this phase qualitatively explored hypothetical acceptability of EIMC among parents and wider family as well as hypothetical feasibility and acceptability of EIMC among health-care workers. Findings from the first phase informed the design of a study to pilot EIMC roll out. The second phase was nested within a trial that assessed the feasibility, safety, acceptability and cost of rolling out EIMC using devices in Zimbabwe. It explored actual acceptability of EIMC among parents and wider family as well as actual feasibility and acceptability of EIMC among health-care workers. Findings from both phases informed recommendations for a demand generation intervention for EIMC which is currently being developed and will subsequently be tested for impact. Given that EIMC has been identified as a key HIV prevention intervention for sustaining the prevention gains anticipated through VMMC across sub-Saharan Africa, the findings of this research are likely to have broad implications for HIV prevention across the region

Acceptability and feasibility of early infant male circumcision for HIV prevention in Malawi

Background Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) has been successfully implemented in 14 countries as an additional HIV prevention intervention. As VMMC programs mature in most countries, the focus is now on how to sustain the HIV prevention gains realised from VMMC. As part of preparations for the sustainability phase, countries are either piloting or preparing to pilot early infant male circumcision (EIMC). This qualitative study explored the acceptability and feasibility of EIMC in Malawi in order to inform pilot implementation. Methods In 2016, 23 focus group discussions were held across Malawi with participants from several ethnicities and religions/faiths. Additionally, 21 key informant interviews were held with traditional and religious leaders, traditional circumcisers (ngalibas), policy-makers, programme managers and health-care workers. Audio recordings were transcribed, translated into English (where necessary), and thematically coded using NVivo 10. Results Discussions highlighted the socio-cultural significance of MC in Malawi. Knowledge or experience of EIMC was poor although acceptability was high among most ethnic/religious groups and key informants. Participants identified EIMC's comparative HIV benefits although a few health-care workers expressed scepticism. All participants said EIMC should be offered within a clinical setting. In addition to fathers, maternal uncles and traditional leaders were deemed key decision-makers. Potential barriers to EIMC included concerns about procedure safety as well as cultural considerations. Key informants felt it was feasible to offer EIMC in Malawi. Participants' recommendations, including phased implementation, engagement of traditional leaders, use of external mobilisers and initially reaching out to influential parents, will be taken into account when designing a pilot EIMC program. Conclusions EIMC is potentially an acceptable and feasible HIV prevention intervention for most ethnic/religious groups in Malawi if wide-ranging, culturally appropriate demand-creation activities are developed, piloted, evaluated and appropriately implemented

Difference in prevalence of common mental disorder as measured using four questionnaire delivery methods among young people in rural Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have suggested that interviewer-administered questionnaires can under-estimate the prevalence of depression and suicidal ideation when compared with self-administered ones. We report here on differences in prevalence of reporting mental health between four questionnaire delivery modes (QDM). METHODS: Mental health was assessed using the Shona Symptom Questionnaire (SSQ), a locally validated 14-item indigenous measure for common mental affective disorders. A representative sample of 1495 rural Zimbabwean adolescents (median age 18) was randomly allocated to one of four questionnaire delivery modes: self-administered questionnaire (SAQ), SAQ with audio (AASI), interviewer-administered questionnaire (IAQ), and audio computer-assisted survey instrument (ACASI). RESULTS: Prevalence of common affective disorders varied between QDM (52.3%, 48.6%, 41.5%, and 63.6% for SAQ, AASI, IAQ, and ACASI respectively (P<0.001)). Fewer participants failed to complete SSQ using IAQ and ACASI than other methods (1.6% vs. 12.3%; P<0.001). Qualitative data suggested that respondents found it difficult answering questions honestly in front of an interviewer. LIMITATIONS: Direction of accuracy cannot be ascertained due to lack of objective or clinical assessments of affective disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Estimates of prevalence of psychosomatic symptoms and suicidal ideation varied according to mode of interview. As each mode's direction of accuracy remains unresolved evaluations of interventions continue to be hampered

Poverty, food insufficiency and HIV infection and sexual behaviour among young rural Zimbabwean women.

BACKGROUND: Despite a recent decline, Zimbabwe still has the fifth highest adult HIV prevalence in the world at 14.7%; 56% of the population are currently living in extreme poverty. DESIGN: Cross-sectional population-based survey of 18-22 year olds, conducted in 30 communities in south-eastern Zimbabwe in 2007. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether the risk of HIV infection among young rural Zimbabwean women is associated with socio-economic position and whether different socio-economic domains, including food sufficiency, might be associated with HIV risk in different ways. METHODS: Eligible participants completed a structured questionnaire and provided a finger-prick blood sample tested for antibodies to HIV and HSV-2. The relationship between poverty and HIV was explored for three socio-economic domains: ability to afford essential items; asset wealth; food sufficiency. Analyses were performed to examine whether these domains were associated with HIV infection or risk factors for infection among young women, and to explore which factors might mediate the relationship between poverty and HIV. RESULTS: 2593 eligible females participated in the survey and were included in the analyses. Overall HIV prevalence among these young females was 7.7% (95% CI: 6.7-8.7); HSV-2 prevalence was 11.2% (95% CI: 9.9-12.4). Lower socio-economic position was associated with lower educational attainment, earlier marriage, increased risk of depression and anxiety disorders and increased reporting of higher risk sexual behaviours such as earlier sexual debut, more and older sexual partners and transactional sex. Young women reporting insufficient food were at increased risk of HIV infection and HSV-2. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence from Zimbabwe that among young poor women, economic need and food insufficiency are associated with the adoption of unsafe behaviours. Targeted structural interventions that aim to tackle social and economic constraints including insufficient food should be developed and evaluated alongside behaviour and biomedical interventions, as a component of HIV prevention programming and policy

Comparative Cost of Early Infant Male Circumcision by Nurse-Midwives and Doctors in Zimbabwe

BACKGROUND: The 14 countries that are scaling up voluntary male medical circumcision (VMMC) for HIV prevention are also considering early infant male circumcision (EIMC) to ensure longer-term reductions in HIV incidence. The cost of implementing EIMC is an important factor in scale-up decisions. We conducted a comparative cost analysis of EIMC performed by nurse-midwives and doctors using the AccuCirc device in Zimbabwe. METHODS: Between August 2013 and July 2014, nurse-midwives performed EIMC on 500 male infants using AccuCirc in a field trial. We analyzed the overall unit cost and identified key cost drivers of EIMC performed by nurse-midwives and compared these with costing data previously collected during a randomized noninferiority comparison trial of 2 devices (AccuCirc and the Mogen clamp) in which doctors performed EIMC. We assessed direct costs (consumable and nonconsumable supplies, device, personnel, associated staff training, and waste management costs) and indirect costs (capital and support personnel costs). We performed one-way sensitivity analyses to assess cost changes when we varied key component costs. RESULTS: The unit costs of EIMC performed by nurse-midwives and doctors in vertical programs were US$38.87 and US$49.77, respectively. Key cost drivers of EIMC were consumable supplies, personnel costs, and the device price. In this cost analysis, major cost drivers that explained the differences between EIMC performed by nurse-midwives and doctors were personnel and training costs, both of which were lower for nurse-midwives. CONCLUSIONS: EIMC unit costs were lower when performed by nurse-midwives compared with doctors. To minimize costs, countries planning to scale up EIMC should consider using nurse-midwives, who are in greater supply than doctors and are the main providers at the primary health care level, where most infants are born