A ka një parim bazë shkenca?

Objekt i kësaj trajtese do të jetë përpjekja për të gjetur një parim bazë të shkencës nga filozofë të ndryshëm të shkencës. Ato përpjekje rezultuan në risi por edhe në probleme të reja të perceptimit, qasjes dhe shpjegimit ndaj shkencës, si dhe zhvillimit të saj. Shkenca që përbën evidencën më të dukshme të rritjes së dijes njerëzore, doli të jetë një fenomen shumë kompleks dhe me sfida nga më të llojllojshmet që të kuptohen dhe të shpjegohen, gjë që shprehet përmes teorive të ndryshme epistemologjike, teori këto të cilat edhe shprehin qasje të ndryshme, por edhe pasqyrojnë evoluimin e saj. Risitë por edhe problemet epistemologjike, në vija të trasha, mund të përmblidhen si më poshtë: (i) formulimi i parimit bazë të shkencës i parimi i verifikimit, (ii) falsifikimi si parim drejtues i shkencës, (iii) paradigmat dhe ndërrimi i tyre si parimi kryesor i zhvillimit të shkencës; dhe (iv) zhvillimet kontroverse pas Kuhnit Përkundër suksesit, megjithatë, ende nuk ka një teori epistemologjike, e cila do t’u jepte përgjigje pyetjeve: ka apo jo një shpjegim racional mbi mënyrën se si vendos komuniteti i shkencëtarëve, në momentet kulminante të zhvillimit shkencor, për ndërrimin e paradigmave

The Stars Are Dead but Their Light Lives on : Fiona Annis

"The stars are dead but their light lives on reflects the impulse to scavenge amongst obsolete technologies and to re-animate these dated apparatuses with the after-image of dead stars. In a dark exhibition space live data processing triggers countless lightbulbs to the rhythms of exploding supernova, and the sounds of stars being swallowed by black holes slowly erodes the slick surface of magnetic audiotape. The exhibition engages in the interpretation of specialist knowledge and the potential of repurposing archival stock." -- Publisher's website

Perspektiva e kundërt metodologjike - një qasje e re dhe jodogmatike

Tema që do të shtjellohet këtu e vë në fokus qasjen e kundërinduksionit - kushtet, rrethanat dhe nxitjet që bën Feyerabendin ta konstituonte atë, si dhe rolin iluminues që ajo luan, përkatësisht do të duhej të luante. Kjo perspektivë e kundërt, de jure i ka munguar shkencës e de facto ajo është zbatuar gjithherë por si qasje ilegjitime. Në aspektin metodologjik të hulumtimit shkencor, do të merret në shqyrtim roli i dyfishtë i rregullave metodike, të cilat edhe e ndihmojnë kërkimin të jetë i suksesshëm edhe e kthejnë atë në dogmë, duke e ngushtuar dhe kufizuar kërkimin për shkak të ekskluzivitetit të tyre dhe të lidhura me këto do të merren në konsideratë tensionet, kritikat dhe zhvillimet metodologjike për ta bërë hulumtimin më efikas. Qëllimi është që të tregohet se kundër-induksioni e plotëson një mungesë të madhe në qasjen metodologjike gjë që, sikurse do të argumentohet, e bën vetë hulumtimin shkencor më të hapur e të shpenguar

Individual Criminal Responsibility for the Crime of Aggression: Tracking Down the Leaders of a State

The Nuremberg Charter introduced the crime of aggression into international law. The American Chief Prosecutor Justice Robert Jackson gave a famous promise that offenders who commit acts of aggression shall be prosecuted and international criminal law would be applied against them. However, only at the first Review Conference of the ICC Statute in Kampala 2010, agreement on a universally accepted definition was reached. To this end, Articles 15bis and 15ter of the ICC Statute prescribe the possibility of the court to exercise its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression after 1 January 2017. What distinguishes the crime of aggression from other core crimes under the ICC jurisdiction — namely, genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes — is its leadership nature. According to Articles 8bis(1) and 25(3bis) ICC Statute, only a person in a position to 'direct or control' political or military action of a state could be found guilty for the crime of aggression. Notably, the structure of Article 25 ICC Statue — which articulates different modes of individual criminal responsibility for the under the ICC purview — is now limited to only a narrow group of people within a state, who could meet the leadership requirement. The introduction of the 'direct or control' clause represents a novelty of the new definition of the crime of aggression. It is true that ever since the post-World War II trials the crime of aggression was somewhat 'reserved' only to the policy-makers. The opinion that hallmarked the discourse on individual criminal responsibility regarding this crime, advocated that low-ranking state officials lacked the requisite mental element in that by virtue of their position they may not know the aggressive plans of their country. Therefore, it would be at variance with the interests of justice to prosecute those individuals for aggression. Not an every post-World War II tribunal set forth the leadership criteria explicitly. However, they all had a pattern they followed in tracing down potential perpetrators who could be regarded as leaders. After the High Command case, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal unequivocally stated that only individuals at the policy level could be convicted for the crime of aggression. By way of example, the leadership standard of 'shape or influence' was adopted for the first time in international criminal law. The requirement of 'shape or influence' was highly disputed in scholarship as it captures a broad group of persons who could meet this criterion. On the other hand, the ICC's standard of 'direct or control' seems to suffice the interest of justice in a more coherent way. Or, in another key, in those terms the commitment of the crime of aggression will entail criminal responsibility only if the perpetrators were in a position of political or military leadership and organized or planned aggression. It captures only those individuals who have decision-making power on behalf of a state to carry out aggression. Accordingly, low-level state officials are excluded by adopting this standard, which was indeed the intention of the architects of international criminal law. The leadership clause evolved but the purpose remained the same, i.e. the aim of the leadership requirement is to narrow down potential perpetrators for the crime of aggression only to persons who are regarded as policy-makers or simply 'leaders'. However, as the both terms 'direct' and 'control' have never been used in international criminal law, the scope of application is not quite clear from the wording of the ICC Statute. In order to consider this in depth, the author will firstly discuss the meaning and effects of the first standard of 'shape or influence', and subsequently consider its interpretation by post-World War II tribunals. After presenting this initial analysis, the thesis will ponder on the ICC's standard of 'direct or control'. Within the chapter that introduces leadership, in sake of producing a robust argument on identifying potential perpetrators who could meet this standard, there will be some theoretical considerations about the conceptual underpinnings of the leadership nature of a crime as such

The Tensions Between Scientific Theories and Reality as a Knowledge Mechanism. Physics may be locked in the ivory tower of theories and must return to nature.

In this paper the relation of scientific theories to reality, as a tension for achieving the knowledge of nature, will be elaborated. The focus is on physics, with emphasis on gravitation. Despite continuous successes, it is gravitation that leaves science ununified in explaining the macro- and microcosm. The paper will list the core efforts toward the unification. The main argument raised is about the assumption that perhaps the path being followed is not right. There is no linear direction in science, no predetermined way of development. It should be remembered that Albert Einstein, although not a member of the scientific community of physicists and who did a simple administrative job, was the one who rejected the famous Newtonian theory and caused a revolution in physics. Maybe some brilliant scientist is needed to get physics out of this state and unify it. This will bring about a new revolution in physics. As well in the knowing of reality

Mbi sfondin dhe ndikimin e mundshëm të epistemologjisë në shfaqjen e post të vërtetës

Qëllimi i kësaj trajtese është të nxjerrë në pah sfondin e post-të vërtetës si një pikëpamje, domethënë disa nga burimet dhe kushtet prej të cilave ka buruar ajo. Duke u bazuar në zhvillimet kundërthënëse filozofike përgjithësisht dhe sidomos të atyre epistemologjike të shekullit XX e që po vazhdojnë edhe sot e kësaj dite, argumentimi do të mbështetet, në njërën anë, në pikëpamjen e verifikacionizmit, sipas së cilës teoritë shkencore konfirmohen po qe se referenca e predikimeve të tyre konstatohet dhe shkencëtarët duhet t’i verifikojnë ato; si dhe, në anën tjetër, në pikëpamjen e falsifikacionizmit, sipas të cilës të gjitha teoritë shkencore janë të rreme dhe shkencëtarët duhet t’i falsifikojnë ato. Shtjellimi do të zgjerohet duke përfshirë kontributet e Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos dhe Paul Feyerabend, si dhe të të tjerëve. Gjetjet e epistemologjisë se teoritë shkencore janë të rreme, se teoritë kanë ndikim në formimin e fakteve dhe perceptimeve, se dikotomia fakte /vlerat është shembur etj., nxjerrin në pah se si ndoshta qe shtruar rruga për post-të vërtetën. Trajtesa do të realizohet përmes qasjes së parashtrimit teorik, të shqyrtimit të argumenteve për dhe kundër dhe të analizës, për të përfunduar se post-e-vërteta si pikëpamje mund të jetë në mënyrë të tërthortë rrjedhojë e zhvillimeve të përgjithshme në filozofi dhe sidomos në epistemologji

Attributing Criminal Responsibility for the Crime of Aggression

To hold a person criminally responsible, the prosecution must prove that his conduct violated (without justification) a prohibitory norm of the criminal code and that he is culpable for such wrongdoing. In international criminal law, wrongfulness and culpability are assessed through the prisms of material (actus reus) and mental (mens rea) elements, respectively. Also called “objective attribution,” ascribing wrongfulness requires a causal link between individual conduct and criminal consequences. Attributing culpability, or “subjective attribution,” on the other hand, consists of establishing mental links between the perpetrator and the occurrence he has caused and the situation in which such an event took place. This Article sets out the normative foundation for the attribution of criminal responsibility for aggression based on the theory of actus reus that I proposed in my previous scholarship. Two findings are paramount. First, to incur wrongfulness, the perpetrator need not necessarily be accountable for an entire act of aggression. It suffices if the prosecution proves that he caused a single instance of the use of armed force that is part of broader hostilities which, taken as a whole, amount to the overarching state conduct element, i.e., an act of aggression that manifestly violates the Charter of the United Nations (U.N. Charter). Second, as a consequence of the first proposition, the individual is culpable if he is mindful of his state leadership position and intends the use of armed force against another state or is aware that such occurrence will result from his conduct, while being cognizant of the factual circumstances allowing for such action to constitute in and of itself or contribute to an overarching act of aggression that manifestly violates the U.N. Charter

Management functions displayed by Prophet Muhammad in two major events

Prophet Muhammad (ṣal-Allāhu ʿalayhi wa sallam) above all was a man. Before receiving his revelation (wahy) he worked as a businessman, conducted and managed a lady entrepreneur’s business, and subsequently married the owner. By contemporary definition he was a manager of a business but was not referred to as such in the literature. After becoming a Messenger (Rasul), he planned, organized, led and controlled – referred to as four management functions in contemporary literature -- several important events related to the affairs of Muslims. The two major historical events in which he had displayed the four management functions were migration (Hijrah) and Battle of Badr. The primary aim of this study is to identify the extent to which Muhammad (ṣal-Allāhu ʿalayhi wa sallam) displayed the four contemporary management functions in these two events. The study uses content analysis approach to dissect and synthesize the qualitative data. It attempts to pair the activities of Muhammad (ṣal-Allāhu ʿalayhi wa sallam) based on Qur'an and Sunnah which have existed over 1400 years with typical management functions developed only recently. Results reveal that activities of Muhammad (ṣal-Allāhu ʿalayhi wa sallam) may be approximated with four contemporary management functions