Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport

The OECD estimates that more than 70% of the developed world population lives in urban environments2, which explains a larger concentration of vehicles there. In the EU-27, there were about 230 million passenger vehicles in 2007 and the new vehicle sales were nearly 16 million vehicles in that year. Notwithstanding the improvements in regulated air pollutants from road transport, the urban population remains at higher risk levels by directly suffering the impact of conventional vehicles because of their closeness to the pollutant source. On one hand urbanization means that people when travelling in their urban environment will typically travel less than 100 km a day. And on the other, that a large percentage of all transâ port and delivery of goods will take place in urban areas. Acceleration and deceleration freâ quency, traffic jams, thus energy efficiency and pollution per km are worst within urban traffic. Many business cases exist for urban electrified road transport because these offer a lower Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) than conventional means already today. The abov

Межличностные отношения — связывающая структура в системе управления

Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) and battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) are currently more expensive than conventional passenger cars but may become cheaper due to technological learning. Here, we obtain insight into the prospects of future price decline by establishing ex-post learning rates for HEVs and ex-ante price forecasts for HEVs and BEVs. Since 1997, HEVs have shown a robust decline in their price and price differential at learning rates of 7 ± 2% and 23 ± 5%, respectively. By 2010, HEVs were only 31 ± 22 €2010 kW-1 more expensive than conventional cars. Mass-produced BEVs are currently introduced into the market at prices of 479 ± 171 €2010 kW-1, which is 285 ± 213 €2010 kW-1 and 316 ± 209 €2010 kW-1 more expensive than HEVs and conventional cars. Our forecast suggests that price breakeven with these vehicles may only be achieved by 2026 and 2032, when 50 and 80 million BEVs, respectively, would have been produced worldwide. We estimate that BEVs may require until then global learning investments of 100–150 billion € which is less than the global subsidies for fossil fuel consumption paid in 2009. These findings suggest that HEVs, including plug-in HEVs, could become the dominant vehicle technology in the next two decades, while BEVs may require long-term policy support

The process of Eco-innovations

This paper describes the process of eco-innovations. The eco-innovation scheme is a part of the legal framework to reduce the CO2 emissions. This eco-innovation scheme and the 6 eligibility criteria are explained. The generic procedure to determine the CO2 savings of a particular innovative technology is described. The process of approval of applications for eco-innovations is illustrated. Then it is exemplified how the approvals for eco-innovations are implemented in the process of type approval and certification. In the last chapter of this paper examples are given of approved eco-innovations and of some emerging technologies.JRC.F.8-Sustainable Transpor

Kinetic Energy to Electric Energy Conversion Using Regenerative Shock Absorbers

The European Commission promotes the development and the early uptake of new and advanced CO2 emission-reducing vehicle technologies. Regenerative technologies form an important part of these so-called Eco-Innovations (EU 725/2011). Recently, interest is growing on regenerative shock absorbers, which convert part of the kinetic energy of vehicles suspensions into electric energy, used to charge the battery. This study, carried out in cooperation between Magneti Marelli S.p.A. and the European Commission Joint Research Centre, depicts a clear and comprehensive scenario on this technology, evaluating the potential of CO2 saving. An extensive analysis of the available literature has been performed, considering different types of technologies. Attention has been paid to the possibility to obtain the desired damping characteristics. Solutions have been analyzed to integrate the power coming from the shocks in the electric grid of the vehicle. The mechanical power in input to the shocks has been calculated, taking as a reference the ISO standard for road profiles (ISO 8608:1995) and using both theoretical formulas and computer simulations. The overall efficiency of the conversion from kinetic to electric power has been shown to range between 0.25 and 0.5. Accordingly, quantitative results about the potential of CO2 savings have been obtained: for passengers cars, the potential of CO2 savings has been calculated between 1 and 2 g CO2 / km, while higher CO2 savings are possible for commercial and heavy duty vehicles. As a final innovative result, it has been demonstrated that regenerative shocks have the potential to be eligible as Eco-Innovations, since they allow to exceed the minimum threshold of 1 g CO2 / km.JRC.F.8-Sustainable Transpor

On the electrification of road transport - Learning rates and price forecasts for hybrid-electric and battery-electric vehicles

Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) and battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) are currently more expensive than conventional passenger cars but may become cheaper due to technological learning. Here, we obtain insight into the prospects of future price decline by establishing ex-post learning rates for HEVs and ex-ante price forecasts for HEVs and BEVs. Since 1997, HEVs have shown a robust decline in their price and price differential at learning rates of 7 ± 2% and 23 ± 5%, respectively. By 2010, HEVs were only 31 ± 22 EUR2010/kW more expensive than conventional cars. Mass-produced BEVs are currently introduced into the market at prices of 479 ± 171 EUR2010/kW, which is 285 ± 213 EUR2010/kW and 316 ± 209 EUR2010/kW more expensive than HEVs and conventional cars. Our forecast suggests that price breakeven with these vehicles may only be achieved by 2026 and 2032, when 50 and 80 million BEVs, respectively, would have been produced worldwide. We estimate that BEVs may require until then global learning investments of 100–150 billion h which is less than the global subsidies for fossil fuel consumption paid in 2009. These findings suggest that HEVs, including plug-in HEVs, could become the dominant vehicle technology in the next two decades, while BEVs may require long-term policy support.JRC.F.8-Sustainable Transpor