Predicting the effect of radiation damage on dark current in a space-qualified high performance CMOS image sensor

The CIS115 is a Teledyne-e2v CMOS image sensor with 1504 × 2000 pixels of 7 μm pitch. It has a high optical quantum efficiency owing to a multi-layer anti-reflective coating and its backside illuminated construction, and low dark current due to its pinned photodiode 4T pixel architecture. The sensor operates in rolling shutter mode with a frame rate of up to 7.5 fps (if using the whole array), and has a low readout noise of ~5 electrons rms. The CIS115 has been selected for use within the JANUS instrument, which is a high resolution camera due to launch on board ESA's JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE) spacecraft in 2022. After an interplanetary transit time of over 7 years, JUICE will spend 3.5 years touring the Jovian system, studying three of the Galilean moons in particular: Ganymede, Callisto and Europa. During this latter part of the mission, the spacecraft and hence the CIS115 sensor will be subjected to the significant levels of trapped radiation surrounding Jupiter. Gamma and proton irradiation campaigns have therefore been undertaken in order to evaluate both ionising and non-ionising dose effects on the CIS115's dark current performance. Characterisations were carried out at expected mission operating temperatures (−35 ± 10oC) both prior to and post-irradiation. Models of the resulting degradation in dark current behaviour will be combined with expected doses during the JUICE mission in order to predict the performance of the CIS115 at the mission end-of-lif

Development of in-situ trap characterisation techniques for EMCCDs

The "trap pumping" technique has seen considerable use over recent years as a means to probe the intrinsic properties of silicon defects that can impact charge transfer performance within CCD-based technologies. While the theory behind the technique is reasonably well understood, it has to date only been applied to relatively simple pixel designs where the motion of charge between pixel phases is fairly easy to predict. For some devices, the intrinsic pixel architecture is more complex and can consist of unequal phase sizes and additional implants that deform the electronic potential. Here, we present the implementation of the trap pumping technique for the CCD201-20, a 2-phase Teledyne e2v EMCCD. Clocking schemes are presented that can provide the location of silicon defects to sub-micron resolution. Experimental techniques that allow determination of trap energy levels and emission cross sections are presented. These are then implemented on an irradiated CCD201-20 to determine the energy level and emission cross section for defects thought to be the double acceptor state of the silicon divacancy (VV--) and carbon-phosphorus (CiPs) pairs. An improvement in charge transfer performance through optimised parallel clock delay is demonstrated and found to correlate with the properties of defects found using the trap pumping technique

Development of in-situ trap characterisation techniques for EMCCDs

The "trap pumping" technique has seen considerable use over recent years as a means to probe the intrinsic properties of silicon defects that can impact charge transfer performance within CCD-based technologies. While the theory behind the technique is reasonably well understood, it has to date only been applied to relatively simple pixel designs where the motion of charge between pixel phases is fairly easy to predict. For some devices, the intrinsic pixel architecture is more complex and can consist of unequal phase sizes and additional implants that deform the electronic potential. Here, we present the implementation of the trap pumping technique for the CCD201-20, a 2-phase Teledyne e2v EMCCD. Clocking schemes are presented that can provide the location of silicon defects to sub-micron resolution. Experimental techniques that allow determination of trap energy levels and emission cross sections are presented. These are then implemented on an irradiated CCD201-20 to determine the energy level and emission cross section for defects thought to be the double acceptor state of the silicon divacancy (VV--) and carbon-phosphorus (CiPs) pairs. An improvement in charge transfer performance through optimised parallel clock delay is demonstrated and found to correlate with the properties of defects found using the trap pumping technique

Characteristics and applications of small, portable gaseous air pollution monitors

BackgroundTraditional approaches for measuring air quality based on fixed measurements are inadequate for personal exposure monitoring. To combat this issue, the use of small, portable gas-sensing air pollution monitoring technologies is increasing, with researchers and individuals employing portable and mobile methods to obtain more spatially and temporally representative air pollution data. However, many commercially available options are built for various applications and based on different technologies, assumptions, and limitations. A review of the monitor characteristics of small, gaseous monitors is missing from current scientific literature.PurposeA state-of-the-art review of small, portable monitors that measure ambient gaseous outdoor pollutants was developed to address broad trends during the last 5-10 years, and to help future experimenters interested in studying gaseous air pollutants choose monitors appropriate for their application and sampling needs.MethodsTrends in small, portable gaseous air pollution monitor uses and technologies were first identified and discussed in a review of literature. Next, searches of online databases were performed for articles containing specific information related to performance, characteristics, and use of such monitors that measure one or more of three criteria gaseous air pollutants: ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide. All data were summarized into reference tables for comparison between applications, physical features, sensing capabilities, and costs of the devices.ResultsRecent portable monitoring trends are strongly related to associated applications and audiences. Fundamental research requires monitors with the best individual performance, and thus the highest cost technology. Monitor networking favors real-time capabilities and moderate cost for greater reproduction. Citizen science and crowdsourcing applications allow for lower-cost components; however important strengths and limitations for each application must be addressed or acknowledged for the given use

Improving the spatial resolution of soft X-ray detection using an Electron-Multiplying Charge-Coupled Device

The Super Advanced X-ray Emission Spectrometer (SAXES) is an instrument at the Swiss Light Source designed for Resonant Inelastic X-ray Scattering with an energy resolution (E/ΔE) better than 12000 at 930 eV. Improvements to the instrument have been predicted that could allow the energy resolution to be improved by a factor of two. To achieve this, the spatial resolution of the detector (currently a Charge-Coupled Device, CCD) over which the energy spectrum is dispersed would have to be improved to better than 5 μm. X-ray photons with energies between a few hundred to a few thousand electron volts primarily interact within the field-free region of back-illuminated CCDs, where each photon forms an electron cloud that diffuses isotropically before reaching the depleted region close to the electrodes. Each photon's electron cloud is likely to be detected as an event with signal split across multiple pixels. Analysing these split events using centroiding techniques allows the photon's interaction position to be determined to a sub-pixel level. PolLux is a soft X-ray microspectroscopy endstation at the Swiss Light Source that can focus 200 eV to 1200 eV X-rays to a spot size of approximately 20 nm. Previous studies using data taken with a linear scan across the centre of a pixel in 3 μm steps predicted an improved resolution by applying centroiding techniques and using an Electron-Multiplying CCD (EM-CCD). In this study, a full 2D map of the centroiding accuracy in the pixel is presented, formed by rastering in two dimensions across the image plane in single micron steps. The improved spatial resolution from centroiding events in the EM-CCD in all areas of the pixel over the standard CCD is attributed to the improved signal to noise ratio provided by the multiplication register even at high pixel readout speeds (tens of MHz)

Comparison of EM-CCD and scientific CMOS based camera systems for high resolution X-ray imaging and tomography applications

We have developed an Electron Multiplying (EM) CCD based, high frame rate camera system using an optical lens system for X-ray imaging and tomography. The current state of the art systems generally use scientific CMOS sensors that have a readout noise of a few electrons and operate at high frame rates. Through the use of electron multiplication, the EM-CCD camera is able to operate with a sub-electron equivalent readout noise and a frame rate of up to 50 HZ (full-frame). The EM-CCD-based camera system has a major advantage over existing technology in that it has a high signal-to-noise ratio even at very low signal levels. This allows radiation-sensitive samples to be analysed with low flux X-ray beams which greatly reduces the beam damage. This paper shows that under the conditions of this experiment the EM-CCD camera system has a comparable spatial resolution performance to the scientific CMOS based imaging system and has a superior signal-to-noise ratio

Novel method for identifying the cause of inherent ageing in Electron Multiplying Charge Coupled Devices

The charge multiplication process used in the Electron Multiplying CCD (EMCCD) is subject to an ageing effect in which the gain achieved at particular avalanche potentials, gradually decreases during operation. To utilise these devices for both space and terrestrial applications where recalibration of the gain is not feasible, a comprehensive understanding of the ageing process is required. A custom automated test equipment (ATE) has been produced and used to develop the techniques required for investigating the ageing process alongside the verification of simulation work on the subject. Simulation work carried out by e2v technologies has suggested hole build-up at the Si/Si02 interface below one of the transfer gates. This build up of holes has now been linked with a reduction in avalanche potential in the device. A novel experimental technique has therefore been developed to determine the actual potentials within the device and thereby determine the validity of this prediction. The initial results tend to support simulation as an increase in the potential beneath one of the phases is observed

Proton radiation damage assessment of a CCD for use in a Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometer

This paper describes the radiation environment and radiation damage analysis performed for the Nadir and Occultation for MArs Discovery (NOMAD) Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometer (UVIS) channel launched onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) in 2016. The aim of the instrument is to map the temporal and spatial variation of trace gases such as ozone and dust/cloud aerosols in the atmosphere of Mars. The instrument consists of a set of two miniature telescope viewing optics which allow for selective input onto the optical bench, where an e2v technologies CCD30-11 will be used as the detector. A Geometry Description Markup Language model of the spacecraft and instrument box was created and through the use of ESA's SPace ENVironment Information System (SPENVIS) an estimate of the 10 MeV equivalent proton fluence was made at a number of radiation sensitive regions within NOMAD, including that of the CCD30-11 which is the focus of this paper. The end of life 10 MeV equivalent proton fluence at the charge coupled device was estimated to be 4.7 × 109 protons.cm−2; three devices were irradiated at different levels up a 10 MeV equivalent fluence of 9.4 × 109 protons.cm−2. The dark current, charge transfer inefficiency, charge storage, and cosmetic quality of the devices was investigated pre- and post-irradiation, determining that the devices will continue to provide excellent science throughout the mission