Microstructure evolution during sintering of multilayer ceramic capacitors: nanotomography and discrete simulations

Multi-Layer Ceramic Capacitors (MLCCs) are key passive components in modern electronics. MLCCs consist of alternating metal electrode and ceramic dielectrics layers. In ultrathin MLCC chips, the micrometric layers are composed of submicrometric metal and ceramic powders and nano sized ceramic additives (to retard the sintering of electrode and minimize the sintering mismatch). A number of defects such as cracks, delamination of layers and electrode discontinuity and homogeneity, may arise in the processing of these ultrathin MLCCs. The cracks and delamination result in product rejection. Electrode discontinuities (uncovered areas) and thickness homogeneity generate a number of problems including capacitance loss, electrical short, leakage current and decreased reliability. It is generally recognized that these defects are linked to the sintering kinetics mismatch between electrode and dielectric materials, during the co-firing (co-sintering) process of MLCCs. However, when it comes to the origin of these defects and to their evolution during the sintering process, little knowledge is available. Conventional post-sintering and 2-dimensional (2D) imaging methods suffer limitations. In this context, in-situ synchrotron X-ray imaging and Discrete Element Method (DEM) have been carried out to explore the origin and the evolution of defects during the co-sintering process. X-ray imaging including 2D radiography and 3-dimensional (3D) nano computed tomography (X-ray nCT) enable non-destructive in-situ observation of the microstructure change in 2D and 3D. In parallel, DEM can simulate the sintering of MLCCs by taking into account the powders’ particulate nature (particle size, packing, etc.) Synchrotron (Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, IL, USA) X-ray based Transmission X-ray Microscope (TXM) with spatial resolution of 30 nm was used to characterize a representative cylindrical volume of Ø 20 µm × 20 µm extracted from a 0603 (1.6 mm×0.8 mm) case size Nickel (Ni)-electrode Barium Titanate (BaTiO3, or BT)-based MLCC before and after sintering under 2H2%+Ar atmosphere. 3D tomographic microstructure imaging shows that the final electrode discontinuity is linked to the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers. In situ X-ray radiography of sintering (heating ramp of 10 oC, holding at 1200 oC for 1 hour, cooling ramp -15 oC) of a Palladium (Pd) electrode BNT (Barium-neodymium-titanate) based MLCC representative volume was also carried out. It confirmed that discontinuities in the electrode originate from the initial heterogeneities, which are linked to the very particulate nature of the powder material. The discontinuity occurs at the early stage of the sintering cycle. At this stage, the electrode starts to sinter while the dielectric material may be considered as a constraining substrate. Correlative studies using Focused Ion Beam - Scanning Electron Microscope (FIB - SEM) tomography were conducted on green and sintered MLCC samples at high resolution (5 × 5 × 5 nm3). FIB images confirmed that the resolution of the X-ray nCT is sufficient to deal with these heterogeneity evolutions. Still, FIB tomography allows the X-ray nCT to be re-interpreted more accurately. Also, it provides detailed particulate parameters for the DEM simulations. The DEM was used to simulate the microstructure of a multilayer system during sintering. These simulations operate at the particle length scale and thus recognize the particulate nature of the multilayers at the early stage of sintering. First, the sintering of Ni matrix with BT inclusions was simulated using the dp3D codes (developed at SIMaP/GPM2, Université de Grenoble, France). The retarding effect of BT inclusions on the sintering of Nickel matrix was predicted by varying the size, the amount and the homogeneity of inclusions. It is found that the densification rate of the matrix decreases with increasing volume fraction of inclusions and with decreasing size of inclusions. For a given volume fraction and size of inclusions, a better dispersion of the inclusions results in a stronger retardation of the densification kinetics of the nickel matrix. Co-sintering of BT/Ni/BT multilayers was simulated with DEM by taking into account the particulate nature collected from the high resolution FIB nanotomography (FIB-nT) data, such as particle size, size distribution, heterogeneities, pores, and geometry. The temperature profile was also reproduced in these simulations. It is found that the electrode discontinuities originate from the initial heterogeneities in the green compact and form at the early stage of sintering under constraint, in good correspondence to the experimental observations. Parametric studies suggest that electrode discontinuities can be minimized by homogenizing the packing density and thickness of the electrodes and using a fast heating rate. Based on both experimental and DEM simulation results, a general conclusion is reached: the final discontinuity originates from the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers and occurs at the early stage of sintering when the dielectric layers constrain the electrode layers. A defect evolution mechanism is proposed: after the lamination of BT sheets, there exist inevitably heterogeneous regions in the electrodes. Below 950-1000 oC, the nickel powder densifies except in heterogeneous zones for which desintering has been observed. At this stage, the Ni layers are under tensile stress. Tensile stresses in the thinner sections induce matter flow towards the thicker sections until the thinner sections are disrupted and discontinuities form. Once nickel is fully dense, electrodes are subjected to compressive stress at high temperature (1100 oC) due to BT densification. The compressive stress causes contraction of the viscous nickel, resulting in swelling of electrodes and hence a further increase in electrode discontinuity. Meanwhile, the nano-sized BT additives are expelled due to their unwettability with Ni at high temperature. The aggregated BT additives sinter, possibly forming percolation between two adjacent BT layers and enhancing the mechanical adhesion between Ni and BT layers in the MLCCs

Microstructure Evolutions during sintering of multilayer ceramic capacitors : nanotomography and discrete simulations

Les condensateurs multicouches en céramique (Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors, MLCCs) sont des composants passifs clés de l'électronique moderne. Les MLCCs sont constitués d'une alternance d'électrodes métalliques et de couches diélectriques de céramique. Les puces ultraminces sont composées de mélanges de couches micrométriques métalliques et céramiques et d'additifs de céramique de taille nano. Un certain nombre de défauts tels que des fissures, des délaminations des couches et des discontinuités au sein de l'électrode, peuvent survenir dans la fabrication de ces MLCCs ultraminces. Un dispositif expérimental à rayons X (TXM, Transmission X-ray Microscope) avec une résolution spatiale de 30 nm au synchrotron APS (Advanced Photon Source, USA) a été utilisé pour caractériser un volume cylindrique représentatif de Ø 20 µm × 20 µm extrait d'une puce 0603 (1,6 mm × 0,8 mm) au nickel (Ni) + titanate de baryum (BaTiO3, ou BT) avant et après frittage sous argon hydrogéné (2%). La tomographie 3D de la microstructure montre que les discontinuités de l'électrode finale sont liées à des hétérogénéités initiales dans les couches d'électrodes. La radiographie in-situ aux rayons X pendant le frittage (vitesse de chauffage de 10 °C/mn, température de maintien à 1200 °C pendant 1 heure, puis refroidissement à 15 oC/min) d’un volume représentatif d'électrode au palladium (+ baryum-néodyme-titanate) confirme bien que les discontinuités dans l'électrode proviennent de l'hétérogénéité initiale de la poudre, qui est lié à la nature du compactage d'un matériau particulaire. La discontinuité se produit à l'étape précoce du cycle de frittage. A ce stade, l'électrode métallique commence à fritter tandis que le matériau diélectrique peut être considéré comme un substrat inerte qui contraint le frittage de l’électrode.Des études corrélatives utilisant un FIB-SEM (Focused Ion Beam Scanning Electron-microscopie) en tomographie à haute résolution (5 × 5 × 5 nm3) ont été effectuées sur des échantillons MLCC à vert et frittés. Elles confirment que la résolution de la nanotomographie X est suffisante pour étudier l’évolution des hétérogénéités. Cependant la tomographie par FIB permet à la nanotomographie X d’être réinterprétée avec plus de précision. D'autre part, le FIB fournit les paramètres des particules pour les simulations DEM.La méthode des éléments discrets (DEM) a été utilisée pour simuler la microstructure du système multicouche lors du frittage. Tout d'abord, le frittage de la matrice de nickel avec inclusions BT a été simulé en utilisant le code dp3D. Nous avons pu montrer que la vitesse de densification de la matrice diminue avec l'augmentation la fraction volumique d'inclusions et avec la diminution de la taille des inclusions. Pour une fraction volumique donnée, et une taille d’inclusions donnée, une meilleure dispersion des inclusions conduit à un retard plus marqué de la densification du frittage de la matrice de nickel.Le co-frittage de multicouches de BT/Ni/BT a été simulé en tenant compte des informations collectées à partir de la tomographie FIB-SEM à résolution élevée (taille des particules, distribution de taille, hétérogénéités, et pores). On constate que les discontinuités d'électrodes proviennent des hétérogénéités initiales dans le comprimé à vert et se forment au début de frittage sous contrainte. Ces résultats de simulation sont en bonne correspondance avec les observations expérimentales. Une étude paramétrique indique que les discontinuités d'électrodes peuvent être minimisées par l'homogénéisation de la compacité, par l’augmentation de l'épaisseur des électrodes et par l’utilisation d’un chauffage rapide.A partir des résultats expérimentaux et des simulations DEM, une conclusion générale peut être avancée: la discontinuité finale provient de l'hétérogénéité initiale dans les couches d'électrodes et survient à un stade précoce de frittage lorsque les couches diélectriques contraignent les couches d'électrodesMulti-Layer Ceramic Capacitors (MLCCs) are key passive components in modern electronics. MLCCs consist of alternating metal electrode and ceramic dielectrics layers. In ultrathin MLCC chips, the micrometric layers are composed of submicrometric metal and ceramic powders and nano sized ceramic additives. A number of defects such as cracks, delamination of layers and electrode discontinuity and homogeneity, may arise in the processing of these ultrathin MLCCs. Synchrotron (Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, IL, USA) X-ray based Transmission X-ray Microscope (TXM) with spatial resolution of 30 nm was used to characterize a representative cylindrical volume of Ø 20 µm × 20 µm extracted from a 0603 (1.6 mm×0.8 mm) case size Nickel (Ni)-electrode Barium Titanate (BaTiO3, or BT)-based MLCC before and after sintering under 2H2%+Ar atmosphere. 3D tomographic microstructure imaging shows that the final electrode discontinuity is linked to the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers. In situ X-ray radiography of sintering (heating ramp of 10 oC, holding at 1200 oC for 1 hour, cooling ramp -15 oC) of a Palladium (Pd) electrode BNT (Barium-neodymium-titanate) based MLCC representative volume was also carried out. It confirmed that discontinuities in the electrode originate from the initial heterogeneities, which are linked to the very particulate nature of the powder material. The discontinuity occurs at the early stage of the sintering cycle. At this stage, the electrode starts to sinter while the dielectric material may be considered as a constraining substrate. Correlative studies using Focused Ion Beam - Scanning Electron Microscope (FIB - SEM) tomography were conducted on green and sintered MLCC samples at high resolution (5 × 5 × 5 nm3). FIB images confirmed that the resolution of the X-ray nCT is sufficient to deal with these heterogeneity evolutions. Still, FIB tomography allows the X-ray nCT to be re-interpreted more accurately. Also, it provides detailed particulate parameters for the DEM simulations.The DEM was used to simulate the microstructure of a multilayer system during sintering. First, the sintering of Nickel matrix with BT inclusions was simulated using the dp3D codes. It is found that the densification rate of the matrix decreases with increasing volume fraction of inclusions and with decreasing size of inclusions. For a given volume fraction and size of inclusions, a better dispersion of the inclusions results in a stronger retardation of the densification kinetics of the nickel matrix.Co-sintering of BT/Ni/BT multilayers was simulated with DEM by taking into account the particulate nature collected from the high resolution FIB nanotomography (FIB-nT) data, such as particle size, size distribution, heterogeneities, pores, and geometry. It is found that the electrode discontinuities originate from the initial heterogeneities in the green compact and form at the early stage of sintering under constraint, in good correspondence to the experimental observations. Parametric studies suggest that electrode discontinuities can be minimized by homogenizing the packing density and thickness of the electrodes and using a fast heating rate.Based on both experimental and DEM simulation results, a general conclusion is reached: the final discontinuity originates from the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers and occurs at the early stage of sintering when the dielectric layers constrain the electrode layers

Evolution de la microstructure lors du frittage de capacités céramiques multicouches : nanotomographie et simulations discrètes.

Multi-Layer Ceramic Capacitors (MLCCs) are key passive components in modern electronics. MLCCs consist of alternating metal electrode and ceramic dielectrics layers. In ultrathin MLCC chips, the micrometric layers are composed of submicrometric metal and ceramic powders and nano sized ceramic additives. A number of defects such as cracks, delamination of layers and electrode discontinuity and homogeneity, may arise in the processing of these ultrathin MLCCs. Synchrotron (Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, IL, USA) X-ray based Transmission X-ray Microscope (TXM) with spatial resolution of 30 nm was used to characterize a representative cylindrical volume of Ø 20 µm × 20 µm extracted from a 0603 (1.6 mm×0.8 mm) case size Nickel (Ni)-electrode Barium Titanate (BaTiO3, or BT)-based MLCC before and after sintering under 2H2%+Ar atmosphere. 3D tomographic microstructure imaging shows that the final electrode discontinuity is linked to the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers. In situ X-ray radiography of sintering (heating ramp of 10 oC, holding at 1200 oC for 1 hour, cooling ramp -15 oC) of a Palladium (Pd) electrode BNT (Barium-neodymium-titanate) based MLCC representative volume was also carried out. It confirmed that discontinuities in the electrode originate from the initial heterogeneities, which are linked to the very particulate nature of the powder material. The discontinuity occurs at the early stage of the sintering cycle. At this stage, the electrode starts to sinter while the dielectric material may be considered as a constraining substrate. Correlative studies using Focused Ion Beam - Scanning Electron Microscope (FIB - SEM) tomography were conducted on green and sintered MLCC samples at high resolution (5 × 5 × 5 nm3). FIB images confirmed that the resolution of the X-ray nCT is sufficient to deal with these heterogeneity evolutions. Still, FIB tomography allows the X-ray nCT to be re-interpreted more accurately. Also, it provides detailed particulate parameters for the DEM simulations.The DEM was used to simulate the microstructure of a multilayer system during sintering. First, the sintering of Nickel matrix with BT inclusions was simulated using the dp3D codes. It is found that the densification rate of the matrix decreases with increasing volume fraction of inclusions and with decreasing size of inclusions. For a given volume fraction and size of inclusions, a better dispersion of the inclusions results in a stronger retardation of the densification kinetics of the nickel matrix.Co-sintering of BT/Ni/BT multilayers was simulated with DEM by taking into account the particulate nature collected from the high resolution FIB nanotomography (FIB-nT) data, such as particle size, size distribution, heterogeneities, pores, and geometry. It is found that the electrode discontinuities originate from the initial heterogeneities in the green compact and form at the early stage of sintering under constraint, in good correspondence to the experimental observations. Parametric studies suggest that electrode discontinuities can be minimized by homogenizing the packing density and thickness of the electrodes and using a fast heating rate.Based on both experimental and DEM simulation results, a general conclusion is reached: the final discontinuity originates from the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers and occurs at the early stage of sintering when the dielectric layers constrain the electrode layers.Les condensateurs multicouches en céramique (Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors, MLCCs) sont des composants passifs clés de l'électronique moderne. Les MLCCs sont constitués d'une alternance d'électrodes métalliques et de couches diélectriques de céramique. Les puces ultraminces sont composées de mélanges de couches micrométriques métalliques et céramiques et d'additifs de céramique de taille nano. Un certain nombre de défauts tels que des fissures, des délaminations des couches et des discontinuités au sein de l'électrode, peuvent survenir dans la fabrication de ces MLCCs ultraminces. Un dispositif expérimental à rayons X (TXM, Transmission X-ray Microscope) avec une résolution spatiale de 30 nm au synchrotron APS (Advanced Photon Source, USA) a été utilisé pour caractériser un volume cylindrique représentatif de Ø 20 µm × 20 µm extrait d'une puce 0603 (1,6 mm × 0,8 mm) au nickel (Ni) + titanate de baryum (BaTiO3, ou BT) avant et après frittage sous argon hydrogéné (2%). La tomographie 3D de la microstructure montre que les discontinuités de l'électrode finale sont liées à des hétérogénéités initiales dans les couches d'électrodes. La radiographie in-situ aux rayons X pendant le frittage (vitesse de chauffage de 10 °C/mn, température de maintien à 1200 °C pendant 1 heure, puis refroidissement à 15 oC/min) d’un volume représentatif d'électrode au palladium (+ baryum-néodyme-titanate) confirme bien que les discontinuités dans l'électrode proviennent de l'hétérogénéité initiale de la poudre, qui est lié à la nature du compactage d'un matériau particulaire. La discontinuité se produit à l'étape précoce du cycle de frittage. A ce stade, l'électrode métallique commence à fritter tandis que le matériau diélectrique peut être considéré comme un substrat inerte qui contraint le frittage de l’électrode.Des études corrélatives utilisant un FIB-SEM (Focused Ion Beam Scanning Electron-microscopie) en tomographie à haute résolution (5 × 5 × 5 nm3) ont été effectuées sur des échantillons MLCC à vert et frittés. Elles confirment que la résolution de la nanotomographie X est suffisante pour étudier l’évolution des hétérogénéités. Cependant la tomographie par FIB permet à la nanotomographie X d’être réinterprétée avec plus de précision. D'autre part, le FIB fournit les paramètres des particules pour les simulations DEM.La méthode des éléments discrets (DEM) a été utilisée pour simuler la microstructure du système multicouche lors du frittage. Tout d'abord, le frittage de la matrice de nickel avec inclusions BT a été simulé en utilisant le code dp3D. Nous avons pu montrer que la vitesse de densification de la matrice diminue avec l'augmentation la fraction volumique d'inclusions et avec la diminution de la taille des inclusions. Pour une fraction volumique donnée, et une taille d’inclusions donnée, une meilleure dispersion des inclusions conduit à un retard plus marqué de la densification du frittage de la matrice de nickel.Le co-frittage de multicouches de BT/Ni/BT a été simulé en tenant compte des informations collectées à partir de la tomographie FIB-SEM à résolution élevée (taille des particules, distribution de taille, hétérogénéités, et pores). On constate que les discontinuités d'électrodes proviennent des hétérogénéités initiales dans le comprimé à vert et se forment au début de frittage sous contrainte. Ces résultats de simulation sont en bonne correspondance avec les observations expérimentales. Une étude paramétrique indique que les discontinuités d'électrodes peuvent être minimisées par l'homogénéisation de la compacité, par l’augmentation de l'épaisseur des électrodes et par l’utilisation d’un chauffage rapide.A partir des résultats expérimentaux et des simulations DEM, une conclusion générale peut être avancée: la discontinuité finale provient de l'hétérogénéité initiale dans les couches d'électrodes et survient à un stade précoce de frittage lorsque les couches diélectriques contraignent les couches d'électrode

Low-Complexity Constrained Recursive Kernel Risk-Sensitive Loss Algorithm

The constrained recursive maximum correntropy criterion (CRMCC) combats the non-Gaussian noise effectively. However, the performance surface of maximum correntropy criterion (MCC) is highly non-convex, resulting in low accuracy. Inspired by the smooth kernel risk-sensitive loss (KRSL), a novel constrained recursive KRSL (CRKRSL) algorithm is proposed, which shows higher filtering accuracy and lower computational complexity than CRMCC. Meanwhile, a modified update strategy is developed to avoid the instability of CRKRSL in the early iterations. By using Isserlis’s theorem to separate the complex symmetric matrix with fourth-moment variables, the mean square stability condition of CRKRSL is derived, and the simulation results validate its advantages

COMPARISON OF TWO CHEMICAL PRETREATMENTS OF RICE STRAW FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION BY ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

Lignocellulosic biomass is considered the most abundant renewable resource that has the potential to contribute remarkably in the supply of biofuel. Previous studies have shown that chemical pretreatment prior to anaerobic digestion (AD) can increase the digestibility of lignocellulosic biomass and methane yield. In the present study, the effect of rice straw pretreatment using ammonium hydroxide (NH3•H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on the biogasification performance through AD was investigated. A self-designed, laboratory-scale, and continuous anaerobic biogas digester was used for the evaluation. Results showed that the contents of the rice straw, i.e. the lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose were degraded significantly after the NH3•H2O and H2O2 treatments, and that biogas production from all pretreated rice straw increased. In addition, the optimal treatments for biogas production were the 4% and 3% H2O2 treatments (w/w), which yielded 327.5 and 319.7 mL/gVS, biogas, respectively, higher than the untreated sample. Biogas production from H2O2 pretreated rice straw was more favorable than rice straw pretreated with same concentration of ammonia, ranking in the order of 4% ≈ 3% > 2% > 1%. The optimal amount of H2O2 treatment for rice straw biogas digestion is 3% when economics and biogas yields are considered

Low-Complexity Constrained Recursive Kernel Risk-Sensitive Loss Algorithm

The constrained recursive maximum correntropy criterion (CRMCC) combats the non-Gaussian noise effectively. However, the performance surface of maximum correntropy criterion (MCC) is highly non-convex, resulting in low accuracy. Inspired by the smooth kernel risk-sensitive loss (KRSL), a novel constrained recursive KRSL (CRKRSL) algorithm is proposed, which shows higher filtering accuracy and lower computational complexity than CRMCC. Meanwhile, a modified update strategy is developed to avoid the instability of CRKRSL in the early iterations. By using Isserlis’s theorem to separate the complex symmetric matrix with fourth-moment variables, the mean square stability condition of CRKRSL is derived, and the simulation results validate its advantages