Pastoral Movements and Movements in Pastoralism: Shifting Traditions and Institutions of Modern Management Strategies in Laikipia Kenya

This collection of papers explores the emergence of, implications for, and justice issues surrounding a new tradition of pastoralism in central Kenya: conservation-driven privatization and commercialization of traditional knowledge and environmental labor. It draws on fieldwork completed for my master’s thesis during May to August 2010 among pastoralists in Laikipia, Kenya, at the Mpala Ranch and Research Centre and the nearby Maasai communities of Ilmotiok and Tiemamut. Through semi-structured interviews and household surveys, I found that conservation and development agendas in this region are contributing to a new wave of livelihood shifts for local pastoralists in which individuals are transitioning from being animal owners to animal ‘caretakers’ employed by powerful conservation groups. At large, my thesis focuses on the social outcomes of these livelihood shifts, including shifts in the sharing of traditional knowledge, decision-making strategies, and associated environmental justice complexities of a new kind of labor-based rather than landscape-based mobility. Using interdisciplinary means and different focal points, these papers explore that theme closely, including issues surrounding resource dependency, insider/outsider knowledge and resource control, shifts in economic norms on individual and landscape scales, and associated questions of cultural transition and justice. The overarching research question in these discussions is what are the tradeoffs of various outcomes of contemporary coupled pastoral management and conservation strategies in an integrated natural-human system? More specifically, what carries over from traditional herding patterns and processes, and what is gained and/or lost when there are attempts by conservation efforts to transform this system? For example, to what extent have conservation strategies such as the Mpala model done away with the socio-spatial mobility and use of ecological heterogeneity by implementing fixed boundaries on the landscape, or have they instead increased flexibility by altering the natural landscape (i.e. through infrastructural development)? The introduction in this series serves as a broad introduction to this landscape, its ecology and its society, its history and its present challenges, as well as a more focused introduction to framing my study sites for further discussion. Beyond this introduction, the three following papers attempt to capture the holistic “identity” of this complex multi-part, multi-person, multilandscape, multi-national endeavor. My intent is to capture the experiential identity of all of these efforts as one that is not static, drawing from oral histories, present experiences, and theory in relevant literature to understand the institutional and cross-continental complexities of conservation and development attempts in this landscape. Part one then focuses on shifting norms of perceptions of land use and land use change in these landscapes. I rely on information represented in my surveys of pastoralists at Mpala and in the surrounding community group ranches. I explore tolerance of wildlife by pastoralists at Mpala and their associated challenges versus tolerance of wildlife by pastoralists in the group ranches and their challenges; such tolerance levels lend information to a transition of knowledge, information output, and communication networks in both landscapes that I compare and contrast across two communities in the same landscape. 5 Part two discusses the privatization and commercialization of traditional knowledge and environmental labor, and I hypothesize on the ecological consequences and social outcomes of this privatization. I draw from the literature in other African pastoral contexts where similar questions are being asked, i.e. of the Maasina in Mali, the FulBe in Côte d’Ivoire, and the Fulani in other West African nations. Within the realm of political ecology and institutional analyses, I write about the shift from animal ownership to animal caretaking and the implications for institutions that are changing norms of mobility in these ecosystems. This paper relies heavily on my ethnographic fieldnotes and informal interviews from key informants, as well as a literature review of the privatization of knowledge and pastoralism. Finally, part three explores the theme of technology and transition in this landscape closely, namely with regard to the changes brought to the experience of pastoralism with the influx of technology. The comparatively large budget and profit margin of Mpala and similar ranches in the region allow for the use of technology in a way that is not seen in other parcels of Laikipia. Here, pastoralists use cell phones to aid in daily and seasonal decision-making but have difficulty finding infrastructure for charging those phones; some use vehicles for transportation or moving injured livestock; radios give warning of dangerous wildlife nearby; and expensive, easily transportable metal fences are used to rotate cattle pastures more frequently than in nearby Maasai group ranches to try to control environmental degradation. Major themes considered include the relationship of technological resources to sustainability, knowledge and resource control, shifts in financial agendas, and transitions in traditional knowledge networks. Collectively, these papers attempt to offer at once snapshots of a landscape complex in its history, present use, and future potential; as well as a holistic overview of a natural-human system in transition, one that is increasingly being recognized for its importance as a leader to conservation in East Africa. In the following analyses I suggest that despite this recognition in the conservation world, there are in fact many more questions to be answered, more social concerns needing to be addressed, and more knowledge to be gleaned before this system is used as a model for conservation, pastoralism, or development in this landscape or elsewhere in Africa.Master of ScienceNatural Resources and EnvironmentUniversity of Michiganhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/85796/1/KaylaYurco_thesis_final.pd

Clay Mineral Cycles Identified by Diffuse Spectral Reflectance in Quaternary Sediments From the Northwind Ridge: Implications for Glacial-Interglacial Sedimentation Patterns in the Arctic Ocean

A Quaternary record of fine-grained sediment composition is used to investigate Arctic Ocean climate variability on glacial-interglacial time scales. Diffuse spectral reflectance data from sediment core P1-92AR-P25 from the Northwind Ridge, north of Alaska, demonstrates cyclic variations in mineralogy. Varimax-rotated R-mode factor analysis of down-core data revealed three major mineralogical assemblages, which were then compared with the content of manganese, a proxy for basin ventilation, and thus glacial-interglacial cycles. Results indicate that factor 1, a smectite + chlorite clay assemblage, was delivered to the core site during interglacials, either by fluvial discharge or sea-ice drift from Siberian rivers or inflow from the Bering Sea. Factor 2, an illite + goethite assemblage, is related to glacial periods, and was probably transported from the Laurentide Ice Sheet by icebergs or meltwater. Factor 3, glauconite, might have been sourced from the North Slope region of Alaska during deglacial intervals, or from dolomites associated with Laurentide iceberg-discharge pulses. The observed variations in sediment source and transport mechanisms arise from glacial-interglacial changes in sea level, the size of the terrestrial ice sheets surrounding the Arctic Ocean, the extent of sea-ice cover and altered atmospheric circulation. The reconstructed glacial-interglacial circulation patterns from the Late Quaternary show some similarity with modern circulation changes presumably related to the monthly- to decadally-fluctuating Arctic Oscillation. However, because the Arctic Oscillation operates on much shorter time scales, further research is necessary to better understand the driving mechanism for the changes observed over glacial-interglacial cycles, and the potential role of ocean-atmospheric interaction

Effectiveness of a comprehensive mental skills curriculum in enhancing surgical performance: Results of a randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION: We hypothesized that the implementation of a novel mental skills curriculum (MSC) during laparoscopic simulator training would improve mental skills and performance, and decrease stress. METHODS: Sixty volunteer novices were randomized into intervention and control groups. All participants received FLS training while the intervention group also participated in the MSC. Skill transfer and retention were assessed on a live porcine model after training and 2 months later, respectively. Performance was assessed using the Test of Performance Strategies-2 (TOPS-2) for mental skills, FLS metrics for laparoscopic performance, and the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-6) and heart rate (HR) for stress. RESULTS: Fifty-five participants (92%) completed training and the transfer test, and 46 (77%) the retention test. There were no significant differences between groups at baseline. Compared to controls the intervention group significantly improved their mental skill use, demonstrated higher laparoscopic skill improvement during retention, and reported less stress during the transfer test. CONCLUSIONS: The MSC implemented in this study effectively enhanced participants' mental skill use, reduced cognitive stress in the operating room with a small impact on laparoscopic performance

Nestin expressing progenitor cells during establishment of the neural retina and its vasculature

In order to test if nestin is a useful marker for various types of progenitor cells, we explored nestin expression in the retina during development. Nestin expression was co-evaluated with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling and Griffonia simplicifolia isolectin B4 (GSIB4) histochemistry. Nestin immunoreactivity appears in cell soma of dividing neural progenitor cells and their leading processes in retinas from embryonic day (E) 13 to E20, in accordance with a BrdU-labeled pattern. At postnatal day (P) 5, it is restricted to the end feet of Müller cells. BrdU-labeled nuclei were mainly in the inner part of the inner nuclear layer in postnatal neonates. The retinal vessels demarcated with GSIB4-positive endothelial cells were first distributed in the nerve fiber layer from P3. Afterward the vascular branches sprouted and penetrated deeply into the retina. The endothelial cells positive for GSIB4 and the pericytes in the microvessels were additionally immunoreactive for nestin. Interestingly, the presumed migrating microglial cells showing only GSIB4 reactivity preceded the microvessels throughout the neuroblast layer during vascular sprouting and extension. These findings may suggest that nestin expression represents the proliferation and movement potential of the neural progenitor cells as well as the progenitor cells of the endothelial cell and the pericyte during retinal development. Thus, Müller glial cells might be potential neural progenitor cells of the retina, and the retinal microvasculature established by both the endothelial and the pericyte progenitor cells via vasculogenesis along microglia migrating routes sustains its angiogenic potential

Genetics of photoreceptor degeneration and regeneration in zebrafish

Zebrafish are unique in that they provide a useful model system for studying two critically important problems in retinal neurobiology, the mechanisms responsible for triggering photoreceptor cell death and the innate stem cell–mediated regenerative response elicited by this death. In this review we highlight recent seminal findings in these two fields. We first focus on zebrafish as a model for studying photoreceptor degeneration. We summarize the genes currently known to cause photoreceptor degeneration, and we describe the phenotype of a few zebrafish mutants in detail, highlighting the usefulness of this model for studying this process. In the second section, we discuss the several different experimental paradigms that are available to study regeneration in the teleost retina. A model outlining the sequence of gene expression starting from the dedifferentiation of Müller glia to the formation of rod and cone precursors is presented

Herders and herdsmen: The remaking of pastoral livelihoods in Laikipia, Kenya

Abstract Pastoralists have long overlapped with wildlife in rangelands of sub-Saharan Africa. With growing recognition of the importance of wildlife outside of protected areas, conservation efforts are increasingly managed through hybrid governance activities worldwide, activities which often involve pastoralists. These efforts are especially prevalent in East African rangelands where pastoralists, livestock, and wildlife commonly overlap outside of formal protected areas. Laikipia County, Kenya, is one region renowned for abundant and diverse wildlife species sustained outside protected areas through a collective of conservation activities among private landowners and pastoral group ranches. Little research has considered pastoralists’ roles in the region’s conservation efforts or the ways that those efforts shape local livelihoods. Based on data from interviews, surveys, and participant observation, this article uses a case study approach to demonstrate how some of Laikipia’s pastoralists are increasingly drawn into professional herding jobs with powerful landowners involved in joint commercial ranching and wildlife conservation activities. This has caused many pastoralists to shift from traditional livestock ownership in favour of livestock caretaking for other owners, with substantial implications for livelihoods. This study offers empirical evidence for the importance of considering how diversifying pastoral livelihoods entwine with hybrid conservation processes outside protected areas

A Multi-Proxy Investigation of the Late Glacial "Mystery Interval" (17.5-14.5 ka)in the Cariaco Basin, Venezuela

The "Mystery Interval" (17.5-14.5 ka) is an unusual time period of abrupt global climate change during the late glacial between Heinrich event 1 and the Bølling-Allerød warm period (~17.5-14.5 ka). This period was characterized by extreme cooling in the North Atlantic region, warming in Antarctica, the rise of atmospheric greenhouse gases, and a variety of hydrologic changes around the globe, all of which may have stemmed from Heinrich event 1 and the possible collapse of the Atlantic's meridional overturning circulation. A distinctive and unique gray clay layer was deposited in Cariaco Basin, Venezuela, within this time period, which has no apparent counterpart in the basin's sediment record for at least the last full glacial-interglacial cycle. One hypothesis for the origin of the gray layer is that the initial pulse of deglacial sea level rise over the shallow Unare Platform, south of the basin, caused remobilization and rapid emplacement of previously deposited shelf sediments. However, analysis of the timing and extent of sea level rise as well as evidence from radiocarbon ages and a comparison of the organic content of gray layer sediments and known turbidites in the basin does not support this hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, that the gray layer is related to increased fluvial discharge from local rivers as a result of elevated regional rainfall, is supported by a number of lines of evidence. The bulk sediment elemental content measured by scanning X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (this study) and clay mineralogy (Yu, 1996) support input of local river sediments. Coccolith abundances (Mertens et al., 2009), sea surface salinity (SSS) estimates and foraminiferal Ba/Ca analysis (this study) are also consistent with freshening of surface waters caused by elevated river runoff. This implies increased rainfall in the region which is corroborated by elemental and mineralogical ratios that point to increased precipitation and chemical weathering. Average terrigenous grain size and terrigenous fluxes are also in line with modern rainy season data. Despite prior suggestions that the Cariaco Basin region should be dry due to a southward-shifted Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) during cool periods in the North Atlantic, such as the Mystery Interval, data presented in this thesis suggest elevated rainfall and fluvial input related to deposition of the gray layer. Multiple lines of proxy evidence indicate that Cariaco Basin may have been characterized by a drier climate in the first part of the Mystery Interval but then shifted to a wetter climate in the second part, after ~16.5 ka, which might resolve this apparent conflict. The change to wetter conditions is most likely due to a northward shift in the position of the ITCZ, possibly due to warming tropical North Atlantic sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and/or extreme North Atlantic seasonality. Comparison of the Cariaco Basin climate records to climate observations from around the globe reveal a similar shift in climatic conditions around the same time, suggesting that the Mystery Interval may actually have been a two-phase event. Although many of the climatic observations from around the world can be explained by a shift from a southerly position of the ITCZ within the first part of the Mystery Interval to a more northerly position during the later part of the interval, many regions are not directly affected by the ITCZ and other complicating factors may play a role in the rapid climate changes observed globally.</p

Characterization of tri and tetra-nucleotide microsatellite loci for the freshwater snails Promenetus exacuous (Planorbidae) and Valvata tricarinata (Valvatidae) and their utility in population genetic studies

Abstract Objective Promenetus exacuous and Valvata tricarinata are freshwater snail species with widespread distributions throughout North America. Information regarding their genetic diversity and population connectivity are currently lacking. We utilized next generation sequencing to develop the first microsatellites for each species to investigate genetic diversity within and differentiation among populations. Results Sixteen and seventeen microsatellite loci were developed for P. exacuous and V. tricarinata, respectively, and tested in a total of 43 P. exacuous and 48 V. tricarinata from two lakes approximately 183 km apart in New York State, USA. Fifteen P. exacuous loci were polymorphic in at least one lake and possessed 1–23 alleles and observed heterozygosities of 0.00–0.96 within individual lakes. Seventeen polymorphic V. tricarinata loci possessed 2–19 alleles and observed heterozygosities of 0.04–0.96 within lakes. Bayesian clustering using 12 loci for each species identified two distinct genetic populations, reflecting the two lakes. High assignment scores for individual snails to the lakes they were collected from supported strong population structure with minimal admixture at the scale of this study. These loci will be useful for investigating the genetic diversity and population structure of these species and indicate genetic differentiation may be common among their populations