Global total precipitable water trends from 1958 to 2021

This study investigates the trend in global total precipitable water(TPW), surface skin temperature (Ts) and surface air temperature (T2m) from 1958 to 2021 using ERA5 and Jra-55 reanalysis datasets. We found that TPW trends in most regions of the world are moistening. Larger moistening trends were in tropical land areas from 1958 to 2021. Such moistening trends over large tropical lands, the Indian Ocean, high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) were confirmed by the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) satellite and the Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive version 2 (IGRA2) observations. The average global TPW trend ranged from 0.16 and 0.21 mm decade-1 for ERA5 and JRA-55, respectively. We also found that significant warming of T2m and Ts was found in almost all regions especially the Arctic where the temperature anomaly trend (0.55 K decade-1) was three times more than the global average trend (around 0.15 K decade-1). In addition, this warming over land was obviously larger than ocean's warming. The TPW trend was positively correlated with surface warming over oceans while this correlation over land was negative. The TPW change in response to temperature T2m or Ts changes showed larger variations of 5-11% K-1 over oceans than over land (below 4 % K-1 and even negative). In view of global dTPW/dT in the banded-latitudes, two stronger response zones were in the southern high-latitudes and tropical zones, and the dTPW/dT ratios over land were mostly lower than the theoretical ratio of 7%/K-1 in tropical zones.Comment: 23 pages, 10 figure

Suppressed Recombination of Sex Chromosomes Is Not Caused by Chromosomal Reciprocal Translocation in Spiny Frog (Quasipaa boulengeri)

Chromosome rearrangements (CRs) are perceived to be related to sex chromosome evolution, but it is a matter of controversy whether CRs are the initial causative mechanism of suppressed recombination for sex differentiation. The early stages of sex chromosome evolution in amphibians may represent intermediate states of differentiation, and if so, they potentially shed light on the ultimate cause of suppressed recombination and the role of CRs in sex chromosome differentiation. In this paper, we showed that sex determination differs among 16 populations of spiny frog (Quasipaa boulengeri), in which individuals have normal and rearranged chromosomes caused by reciprocal translocation. In eastern areas, without translocation, genetic differentiation between sexes was relatively low, suggesting unrestricted recombination. In comparison, in western populations that have both normal and translocated chromosomes, a male-heterogametic system and lack of X-Y recombination were identified by male-specific alleles and heterozygote excess. However, such genetic differentiation between sexes in western populations was not directly related to karyotypes, as it was found in individuals with both normal and translocated karyotypes. In the western Sichuan Basin, male-specific and translocation-specific allelic frequency distributions suggested that recombination of sex-differentiation ceased in all populations, but recombination suppression caused by translocation did not exist in some populations. Combined with phylogenetic inference, this indicated that the establishment of sex-linkage had taken place independently of reciprocal translocation, and translocation was not the ultimate cause of sex chromosome differentiation. Furthermore, comparison of the genetic diversity of alleles on Y chromosomes, X chromosomes, and autosomes in western populations showed a reduction of effective population size on sex chromosomes, which may be caused by reciprocal translocation. It indicates that, although it is not the ultimate cause of recombination suppression, reciprocal translocation may enhance sex chromosome differentiation

DeepBouton: Automated Identification of Single-Neuron Axonal Boutons at the Brain-Wide Scale

Fine morphological reconstruction of individual neurons across the entire brain is essential for mapping brain circuits. Inference of presynaptic axonal boutons, as a key part of single-neuron fine reconstruction, is critical for interpreting the patterns of neural circuit wiring schemes. However, automated bouton identification remains challenging for current neuron reconstruction tools, as they focus mainly on neurite skeleton drawing and have difficulties accurately quantifying bouton morphology. Here, we developed an automated method for recognizing single-neuron axonal boutons in whole-brain fluorescence microscopy datasets. The method is based on deep convolutional neural networks and density-peak clustering. High-dimensional feature representations of bouton morphology can be learned adaptively through convolutional networks and used for bouton recognition and subtype classification. We demonstrate that the approach is effective for detecting single-neuron boutons at the brain-wide scale for both long-range pyramidal projection neurons and local interneurons

L. liui + L. leishanense, 832 individuals' STR

832 individuals from 21 populations of Leptobrachium liui and 3 populations of L. leishanense; 8-14 microsatellite loci each population; data in genepop format

Data from: Examining the interglacial high-elevation refugia scenario in East Asian subtropical mountain systems with the frog species Leptobrachium liui

The effects of Quaternary climatic oscillations on the distributions of organisms in different parts of the world are not equally well understood, limiting the ability to understand the determinants of biodiversity. Compared with the mountain regions in southern Europe and southwestern North America, such effects on high-elevation species in the East Asian subtropical mountain systems located in southern and southeastern China have seldom been addressed. In this study, using Leptobrachium liui (Megophryidae), we made one of the earliest attempts to examine the interglacial high-elevation refugia scenario in these Asian mountains. Based on our current understanding of the study system, we formulated a hypothesis that these frogs of western origin were distributed more widely and continuously during glacial phases, allowing eastward dispersal, and that they are currently isolated in interglacial refugia at higher elevations. Microsatellite data and mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data were obtained with extensive sampling followed by the synthesis of phylogeographic and population genetic analyses and modeling of the species distribution. The analyses revealed a sequential eastward divergence of microsatellite clusters and gene lineages accompanied by a decline in genetic diversity. Molecular dating estimates revealed divergence events in the Pleistocene, and a reduction in local populations was inferred to have occurred at a time comparable to the end of the last glacial. Strong genetic isolation by distance reflecting a more continuous historical distribution was detected. Furthermore, environmental niche models inferred a wide planar distribution during the last glacial maximum, providing further support for the hypothesis