Life cycle environmental impacts of current and future battery-grade lithium supply from brine and spodumene

Life cycle assessment studies of large-scale lithium-ion battery (LIB) production reveal a shift-of-burden to the upstream phase of cell production. Thus, it is important to understand how environmental impacts differ based on the source and grade of extracted metals. As lithium is highly relevant to several current and next-generation cell chemistries, we reviewed the effect of varying grades in different sources of lithium (brine and spodumene) worldwide. The review covered the Ecoinvent database, scientific literature, and technical reports of several upcoming production facilities. The results showed that lower-grade lithium brines have higher environmental impacts compared to higher-grade brines. However, spodumene-based production did not show such a trend, due to different technical process designs of the facilities reviewed. Water use impacts are higher in lower-grade sources and are expected to increase with decreasing lithium concentration. This could specifically be an issue in brine-based production, where brine is extracted from already water scarce regions and evaporated, thus increasing the risk of freshwater availability. However, these aspects of water use are not addressed in existing life cycle impact assessment methods. In the context of large-scale LIB cell production, the reviewed lithium hydroxide production routes account for 5–15% of the climate change impacts

Does the grade and source of lithium used in batteries matter?

Lithium-based batteries are increasingly being implemented for storing energy, both in transportation and stationary applications. As battery manufacturing matures and becomes more efficient, the environmental burdens of these batteries shift upstream, for example to the lithium supply. The majority of the current global lithium supply comes from two sources – spodumene mined in Australia and brines extracted in Chile. In this study, we review existing life cycle assessment literature on lithium production regarding data completeness and quality, as well as temporal and geographical relevance. Preliminary results indicate that the currently most used datasets in life cycle assessment studies of lithium-based batteries lack quality and representativeness of current operations. To address these gaps, this study compiles several new datasets for lithium production representing different geographies, technical processes, and lithium grades. First, we compare the inventory data of other existing lithium supply datasets, both older and newly compiled, regarding their quality and representativeness. Second, we look at future scenarios for lithium supply based on global proven reserves and analyze the influence of changing grades on future environmental impacts. Third, we examine the potential for reducing environmental impacts from the lithium-supply chain by linking all electricity inputs to renewable sources. Finally, we use the various lithium datasets compiled in this study to update the results of a giga-scale lithium-ion battery manufacturing in a recently published study. We focus on climate change and mineral resource use impacts. Additionally, to inform a growing debate in scientific literature around the water use impacts related to brine and freshwater extraction in water-stressed regions of the world, such as the salars in South America, we use regionalized water use assessment indicators to further assess the burdens of battery production from water use perspective

Implementation of the crustal scarcity indicator into life cycle assessment software

This report provides a detailed description of how the crustal scarcity indicator (CSI) is\ua0implemented into the life cycle assessment (LCA) software OpenLCA. The original\ua0characterization factors for the CSI, called crustal scarcity potentials (CSPs), were designed to be\ua0paired with life cycle inventory data formulated as the amount (mass) of elements extracted from\ua0the crust. However, some inventory data is not formulated in terms of mass of elements extracted.\ua0For example, data in the Ecoinvent database – the world’s largest LCA database – can also be\ua0expressed in terms of the amount of mineral extracted, the amount of rock extracted, or the amount\ua0of ore extracted. In order to implement the CSI into OpenLCA in a way that captures such nonelement\ua0flows, we construct five categories of inventory data for material flows extracted from the\ua0crust. Type A flows are flows of elements, such as lead or tin, which the original CSPs can be paired\ua0with. Type B flows are flows of minerals, such as kieserite or stibnite. Type C flows are flows of\ua0rocks and groups of minerals, such as basalt or olivine. Type D flows are ores, like copper ore. Type\ua0A flows are paired with the CSPs of the respective element types. However, for type B, C and D\ua0flows, new CSPs were calculated based on their respective content of different elements. These new\ua0CSPs can be found in Appendix A-D. In addition, type E flows are those that are too vaguely\ua0formulated in the Ecoinvent database, for example as general metal or ore, making it impossible to\ua0derive CSPs. In the concluding discussion, we show that this implementation gives the CSI a wider\ua0coverage of different inventory flows than other existing mineral resource impact assessment\ua0methods implemented in different packages for OpenLCA. The implementation might thus be\ua0considered a guidance for a more all-encompassing implementation of other mineral resource\ua0impact assessment methods as well

Screening resource assessment of next-generation battery chemistries

Rechargeable batteries are used in a number of applications of high societal importance, including various types of electronics and electric vehicles. Many of those batteries currently in use contain rare and/or critical chemical elements and materials. In this study, we identify next-generation battery chemistries based on a survey sent out to organizations within the Batteries Sweden (BASE) competence centre. The identified chemistries are then assessed regarding their resource requirements, applying a screening resource assessment method developed within the study. The method considers the crustal rarity and criticality of the materials contained within the battery cell, from the perspective of the European Union. The results from the screening assessment show that two types of multivalent batteries (one specific calcium-based battery cell and one specific aluminium-based cell) contain the lowest number of rare and critical materials of the batteries assessed, while a certain type of lithium-ion battery cell (nickel-manganese-cobalt, NMC) contains the highest number of rare and critical materials. The developed screening method can be used by BASE members and other relevant actors to identify battery chemistries with promising resource performance for further, more detailed resource assessments, such as life cycle assessment and material flow analysis

Prospective Life Cycle Assessment of Lithium-Sulfur Batteries for Stationary Energy Storage

The lithium-sulfur (Li-S) battery represents a promisingnext-generationbattery technology because it can reach high energy densities withoutcontaining any rare metals besides lithium. These aspects could giveLi-S batteries a vantage point from an environmental and resourceperspective as compared to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Whereas LIBsare currently produced at a large scale, Li-S batteries are not. Therefore,prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to assess the environmentaland resource scarcity impacts of Li-S batteries produced at a largescale for both a cradle-to-gate and a cradle-to-grave scope. Six scenarioswere constructed to account for potential developments, with the overallaim of identifying parameters that reduce (future) environmental andresource impacts. The specific energy density and the type of electrolytesalt are the two most important parameters for reducing cradle-to-gateimpacts, whereas for the cradle-to-grave scope, the electricity source,the cycle life, and, again, the specific energy density, are the mostimportant. Additionally, we find that hydrometallurgical recyclingof Li-S batteries could be beneficial for lowering mineral resourceimpacts but not necessarily for lowering other environmental impacts. Life cycle assessment of lithium-sulfurbatteries indicatesa similar environmental impact but a potentially lower mineral resourceimpact compared to lithium-ion batteries

How environmentally friendly are batteries with no rare or critical materials?

Rechargeable batteries are increasingly used in a number of applications, such as consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and stationary energy storage. An increased use in the latter two applications is envisioned to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.However, the dominant rechargeable battery technology – the lithium-ion battery (LIB) – impacts the environment in several ways throughout its life cycle. In addition, LIBs require critical and/or geochemically scarce materials, such as lithium, natural graphite, and sometimes nickel and cobalt. One promising next generation battery (NGB) is the sodium-ion battery (SIB). While other NGBs can provide higher energy densities, the SIB technology holds great promise from a resource point of view, since it can be made to contain mostly low-cost, abundant and readily available elements, such as sodium and iron. In addition, the manufacturing processes and equipment developed for LIBs can in principle be re-used, enabling convenient scale-up of production. We here assess the life-cycle impacts of a specific SIB with a low content of scarce metals using prospective life cycle assessment (LCA). The SIB is assumed to be a mature technology produced at large scale and this we accomplish by using data from a small-scale producer and scale these up using available large-scale factory data for LIB production. We use a functional unit of 1 kWh of installed battery cell storage capacity and focus on climate and mineral resource impacts, since those have been highlighted in several publications and guidance documents as particularly important to address in LCAs of batteries. Different shares of renewables are considered in energy supply scenarios, along with scenarios for specific energy density developments. The impacts are compared to those of large-scale produced LIBs and to another NGB – the lithium-sulfur battery. To investigate mineral resource impacts of the different technologies in depth, we include two resource impact assessment methods, the crustal scarcity indicator and the surplus ore potential. The aims of the study are (i) to assess the prospective life cycle impacts of the SIB technology in order to reveal whether it is preferable to other battery technologies from an environmental and resource point of view, and (ii) to understand the environmental profile of the SIB in order to identify hotspots

Prospective Life-Cycle Modeling of Quantum Dot Nanoparticles for Use in Photon Upconversion Devices

Quantum dot nanoparticles (NPs) can be used in several applications, for example, photon upconversion devices that increase the electricity output of solar modules. In order to facilitate life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of such applications, this study provides ready-to-use LCA unit process data for four NPs suitable for photon upconversion applications: cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, lead selenide, and lead sulfide. The data is provided for two prospective scenarios: one optimistic and one pessimistic. An impact assessment is conducted in order to assess the NPs’ climate change performance, where solvent-related processes such as steam production for recycling and hazardous waste treatment are shown to be hotspots. To show the applicability of the data, a prospective assessment of a solar module with an upconversion layer is conducted to investigate whether it is preferable from a climate perspective to install more solar modules or equip existing ones with upconversion devices, leading to more electricity produced in both cases. The assessment shows that solar modules need to become 0.05–2 percentage points more efficient per gram of NPs applied, depending on the scenario, in order for the upconversion layer to be preferable

Ethical use of animal models in musculoskeletal research.

The use of animals in research is under increasing scrutiny from the general public, funding agencies, and regulatory authorities. Our ability to continue to perform in-vivo studies in laboratory animals will be critically determined by how researchers respond to this new reality. This Perspectives article summarizes recent and ongoing initiatives within ORS and allied organizations to ensure that musculoskeletal research is performed to the highest ethical standards. It goes on to present an overview of the practical application of the 3Rs (reduction, refinement, and replacement) into experimental design and execution, and discusses recent guidance with regard to improvements in the way in which animal data are reported in publications. The overarching goal of this review is to challenge the status quo, to highlight the absolute interdependence between animal welfare and rigorous science, and to provide practical recommendations and resources to allow clinicians and scientists to optimize the ways in which they undertake preclinical studies involving animals. © 2016 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:740-751, 2017

Nurses' perceptions of aids and obstacles to the provision of optimal end of life care in ICU

Contains fulltext : 172380.pdf (publisher's version ) (Open Access

Transversus abdominal plane (TAP) block for postoperative pain management: a review [version 1; referees: 2 approved]

Transversus abdominal plane (TAP) block has a long history and there is currently extensive clinical experience around TAP blocks. The aim of this review is to provide a summary of the present evidence on the effects of TAP block and to provide suggestions for further studies. There are several approaches to performing abdominal wall blocks, with the rapid implementation of ultrasound-guided technique facilitating a major difference in TAP block performance. During surgery, an abdominal wall block may also be applied by the surgeon from inside the abdominal cavity. Today, there are more than 11 meta-analyses providing a compiled evidence base around the effects of TAP block. These analyses include different procedures, different techniques of TAP block administration and, importantly, they compare the TAP block with a variety of alternative analgesic regimes. The effects of TAP block during laparoscopic cholecystectomy seem to be equivalent to local infiltration analgesia and also seem to be beneficial during laparoscopic colon resection. The effects of TAP are more pronounced when it is provided prior to surgery and these effects are local anaesthesia dose-dependent. TAP block seems an interesting alternative in patients with, for example, severe obesity where epidural or spinal anaesthesia/analgesia is technically difficult and/or poses a risk. There is an obvious need for further high-quality studies comparing TAP block prior to surgery with local infiltration analgesia, single-shot spinal analgesia, and epidural analgesia. These studies should be procedure-specific and the effects should be evaluated, both regarding short-term pain and analgesic requirement and also including the effects on postoperative nausea and vomiting, recovery of bowel function, ambulation, discharge, and protracted recovery outcomes (assessed by e.g., postoperative quality of recovery scale)