Improving outcomes in outsourced product development: a joint consultant-client perspective

Although firms increasingly outsource front end product development activities to production suppliers or design consultants, this practice has received little scholarly attention. The few existing academic studies report high failure rates but generally present only the client firms’ view of the causes. Our first results from in-depth interviews of both clients and consultants give a richer picture of enablers of success and causes of failure. We confirm some previous findings(internal divisions within the client, “poor communication” between parties),identify new ones (inadequate client capabilities, failure to transfer design intent), and combine them into a comprehensive model of outsourced product development that includes negotiating project scope, continuously managing expectations, and carefully re-integrating the design output into the client’s operations. Finally, we classify several types of client dependency (need for new ideas, extra capacity, or specific technical expertise) and highlight the particular hazards associated with each

Degree Correlations and Motifs in Technological Networks

Recent network research has sought to characterize complex systems with a number of statistical metrics, such as power law exponent (if any), clustering coefficient, community behavior, and degree correlation. A larger goal of such research is to obtain insight into the systems’ functions by means of these and similar analyses. In this paper we examine network models of mechanical assemblies. Such systems are well understood functionally. We show that they have both rich and varied community structure as well as negative degree correlations (disassortative mixing), and show that this can be explained by additional powerful constraints that arise from identifiable first principles. In addition, we note that their main “motif” is closed loops (as it is for electric and electronic circuits), a pattern that conventional network analysis does not detect but which is used by software designed to aid in the design of such systems. The implication is that functional understanding of complex systems requires considerable domain knowledge beyond what typical network analysis tools employ

On well-rounded sublattices of the hexagonal lattice

We produce an explicit parameterization of well-rounded sublattices of the hexagonal lattice in the plane, splitting them into similarity classes. We use this parameterization to study the number, the greatest minimal norm, and the highest signal-to-noise ratio of well-rounded sublattices of the hexagonal lattice of a fixed index. This investigation parallels earlier work by Bernstein, Sloane, and Wright where similar questions were addressed on the space of all sublattices of the hexagonal lattice. Our restriction is motivated by the importance of well-rounded lattices for discrete optimization problems. Finally, we also discuss the existence of a natural combinatorial structure on the set of similarity classes of well-rounded sublattices of the hexagonal lattice, induced by the action of a certain matrix monoid.Comment: 21 pages (minor correction to the proof of Lemma 2.1); to appear in Discrete Mathematic

Connectivity Limits of Mechanical Assemblies Modeled as Networks

This paper applies network connectivity analysis to mechanical assemblies. Assemblies have extensive intentional structure while simultaneously displaying some of the properties of previously analyzed networks. Fundamental principles impose restrictions on the structure of assemblies, as do some practical principles. Fundamental restrictions stem from the desire to avoid over-constraining the assembly. Practical restrictions stem from the desire to limit the complexity of the assembly or any significant subassembly. These restrictions play a role analogous to the cost of connection. For these reasons, mechanical assemblies are unlikely to exhibit scale-free properties common in many natural systems and some man-made ones

Combating System-Level Quality Problems in Complex Product Development

As products become more complex and their development involves more technologies, people, and companies, it is no longer sufficient to ensure that each part, component, or subsystem is designed and made correctly. Problems that involve many distinct elements can still arise, even if each is designed according to the specifications. Practitioners speak of Murphy’s Law and “sneak paths,” while academics refer to “emergent properties” and “undocumented interactions.” The goal of this paper is to look at this problem from the outside, focusing on Ford and two non-competing companies whose products are also complex: United Technologies and Boeing. Interviews were conducted with senior management and lower level supervisors, focusing on both official processes and anecdotal reports on what works and what does not

Physical Limits to Modularity

Architecture, specifically the definition of modules and their interconnections, is a central concern of engineering systems theory. The freedom to choose modules is often taken for granted as an essential design decision. However, physical phenomena intervene in many cases, with the result that 1) designers do not have freedom to choose the modules, or 2) that they will prefer not to subdivide their system into as small units as is possible. A distinction that separates systems with module freedom from those without seems to be the absolute level of power needed to operate the system. VLSI electronics exemplify the former while mechanical items like jet engines are examples of the latter. It has even been argued that the modularity of VLSI should be extended to mechanical systems. This paper argues that there are fundamental reasons, that is, reasons based on natural phenomena, that keep mechanical systems from approaching the ideal modularity of VLSI. The argument is accompanied by examples

Growth Patterns of Subway/Metro Systems Tracked by Degree Correlation

Urban transportation systems grow over time as city populations grow and move and their transportation needs evolve. Typical network growth models, such as preferential attachment, grow the network node by node whereas rail and metro systems grow by adding entire lines with all their nodes. The objective of this paper is to see if any canonical regular network forms such as stars or grids capture the growth patterns of urban metro systems for which we have historical data in terms of old maps. Data from these maps reveal that the systems' Pearson degree correlation grows increasingly from initially negative values toward positive values over time and in some cases becomes decidedly positive. We have derived closed form expressions for degree correlation and clustering coefficient for a variety of canonical forms that might be similar to metro systems. Of all those examined, only a few types patterned after a wide area network (WAN) with a "core-periphery" structure show similar positive-trending degree correlation as network size increases. This suggests that large metro systems either are designed or evolve into the equivalent of message carriers that seek to balance travel between arbitrary node-destination pairs with avoidance of congestion in the central regions of the network. Keywords: metro, subway, urban transport networks, degree correlationComment: Updated ref [6]. Added equation to Appendix

Experimental Methods and Practices for The Study of Toroidal Inflated, Braided Fabric Members

Inflatable structures have become a very important area of interest for many differing applications where lightweight packable structures are required. NASA is developing Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (HIAD) technology that takes advantage of stacked, inflated fabric tori to form a decelerating spacecraft nose cone. The tori consist of a bladder, braided fabric shell, and reinforcing in the form of integral cords or externally bonded straps. The focus of this thesis is on the development of methods for the structural testing of inflated fabric tori and developing an enhanced understanding of their behavior. This is essential for providing insight into the mechanical behavior of the HIAD and improving simulation-based models of HIADs. Experimentally testing braided inflated fabric tori is complex, and the University of Maine has improved on the setup originally developed by NASA for testing these articles. Further improvement of the test setup accomplished as part of this research included enhancing the control system used for torus testing to work in displacement control. This produced results that could be more easily used to validate simulation tools being independently developed by others. Testing of these torus articles was accomplished by applying discrete, multiple point loads in the radial direction, inducing compression and bending of a single torus. Torus testing was conducted using up to sixteen actuators attached to eight straps on the article allowing for many differing testing profiles and loading protocols to be performed. Testing was also performed at a variety of different pressures and for a large range of sizes of tori allowing for a better understanding of how these properties affect the response of the structure. Strict pressure regulation and test timing was used to ensure that the articles exhibited as little hysteretic effect as was feasible to avoid. Additionally, tori with different reinforcing schemes were tested to experimentally determine advantages and disadvantages of these reinforcing schemes

Effectiveness of osteoporosis medication on site‐specific fracture‐risk attenuation among adults with epilepsy

ObjectiveThe objective of this propensity score‐matched, observational cohort study was to determine the effectiveness of osteoporosis medication on reducing the risk of non‐trauma fracture (NTFx) among adults with epilepsy.MethodsData from 01/01/2012 to 09/30/2015 was extracted from Optum Clinformatics Data Mart. NTFx risk attenuation from 12 months prior to 12 months after the individual’s index date was examined for each group of adults ≥50 years of age as risk ratios (RRs with 95% confidence intervals [CIs]). Groups were stratified based on: (1) epilepsy status, as with vs without epilepsy (EP); and (2) if and when osteoporosis medication was first prescribed, as new users (treatment naive), consistent users (osteoporosis medication prescribed in pre‐index period), and no users. Comparison groups were matched 1:1 to EP new users (n = 828/group) for demographics, glucocorticoid and antiseizure medication, and the Elixhauser comorbidity index. Difference‐in‐difference analysis compared the change in pre‐ to post‐index NTFx risk among groups as the ratio of the RR (RRR).ResultsThe pre‐ to post‐index NTFx risk at any site was reduced for EP new users (RR = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.40‐0.61) and EP consistent users (RR = 0.70; 95% CI = 0.38‐0.98), but nonsignificantly elevated for EP no users (RR = 1.39; 95% CI = 0.93‐2.07)—findings were consistent for most sites (eg, vertebral column). EP new users had a larger NTFx risk attenuation at any site compared to EP no users (RRR = 0.35; 95% CI = 0.23‐0.54) and EP consistent users (RRR = 0.70; 95% CI = 0.51‐0.97). EP consistent users had a larger NTFx risk attenuation at any site compared to EP no users (RRR = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.32‐0.79). The extent of NTFx risk attenuation at any site was similar for new users with vs without epilepsy (RRR = 0.99; 95% CI = 0.73‐1.34) and consistent users with vs without epilepsy (RRR = 0.81; 95% CI = 0.55‐1.17). There was evidence of site‐specific effects (eg, hip).ConclusionOsteoporosis medication is associated with a clinically meaningful 12‐month NTFx risk attenuation for adults with epilepsy, especially for those just starting osteoporosis medication.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/163930/1/epi16700_am.pdfhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/163930/2/epi16700.pd

Description Of Procedures In Automotive Engine Plants (ABSTRACT)

ABSTRACT 1. Human resources - For automakers, the total cost of paying average workers is around $40000 per year (mean value); the numbers range from$30000 to $60000 (except for a Central European facility where it is much lower). On average, direct pay is three times the amount of benefits. In general, worker qualification does not affect the benefits policy within an automobile engine plant. - Overall, the average age of workers in engine plants is slightly above 40 years old. There is no difference by geographic region. In older engine plants, workers do tend to be older. Annual turnover rates are around 5%. Mean values for unionization levels are 7990 for hourly workers, 45% for salaried workers. It is common for production workers to be assigned different tasks; the engine plants where the union contract restricts the kind of activities are located in North America. - A majority of engine plants surveyed have work teams, and they are deployed in all departments. In most cases, work teams were introduced about five years ago. Sometimes, work team leaders are not elected. The average training received is 41 hours per employee per year. Fluctuations in the values are large. European facilities tend to have more training. Respondents felt that inspecting one's work, being well trained, designing one?s workplace and having suggestions accepted are factors which can help workers make high quality engines. Workers and management interact via meetings and surveys. There are usually fewer than 2 suggestions per worker per year. The more training people get, the more likely they are to make suggestions. 2. Logistics - Delivery of parts to the assembly department of engine plants: the Japanese-owned facilities get a much higher fraction of these components delivered more than once per shift, compared to other plants. There are more instances of "just-in-time" practice for castings and parts delivered to the machining departments. - Engine and vehicle assembly plants: for half of our sample, the average delivery pace of finished engines to the car assembly plant is once per shift or more frequently. Engine plants which deliver engines very frequently no matter how far their customer vehicle assembly plants are located. The average value of the average delivery size of finished engines is 273 units (the results are very variable, but in general, the more engines are produced per unit time, the larger the batch size). For one out of two engine plants, the average transit time to the customer vehicle assembly plant is less than half a day; however, there are many cases where finished engines are delivered to vehicle assembly plants located very far away. 3. Maintenance policies - Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is in place in all of the plants surveyed, but this is quite recent (implementation started between 1990 and 1994). In two out of three cases, it is based on a centralized planning and information system. All of the key maintenance items mentioned in the questionnaire are taken care of by all engine plants; however, the frequency at which maintenance is done varies a lot from plant to plant (average: one and a half times per week). ProceduresinEnginePlants(ABSTRACT) MIT /IMVP --Oct.1997 Page2 - Throughout all departments of engine plants, breakdowns are caused on average mostly by mechanical problems and then by electrical problems although there is a lot of variation between plants. For those types of failures, there is no link with any downtime statistics. Hydraulic failures occur more frequently in those plants which are older. 4. Production technologies - Several of the engine plants surveyed are currently undergoing major changes. For a new engine variant, most engine plants can deal with the adaptation by using much more than half of the existing machines. In engine plants, a ?minor upgrade? can stop lines anywhere between less than 24 hours to more than a week. Currently, assembly lines in engine plants can handle more flexibility than machining lines. When different engines are built in sequence, the pattern used most often is 1-1- 1-2-2-2 (batch sizes range from 6 to 100?s of engines). - Current and future design and acquisition processes for equipment do not differ. There is one policy for the whole plant. For a majority of engine plants, the methodology is as follows: the automobile company takes care of defining the requirements, it has a large influence (along with an affiliate or sister company sometimes) for the planning process, but the design and building of equipment is done by an outside equipment or system supplier. Two areas where answers differ a lot concern the system integration and the actual installation of equipment in engine plants: in some cases, the automobile company is in charge, while in other cases, an outside firm does the job. 5. Quality - Engines made in European plants have more complaints per 1000 than the North American or Japanese ones (caution: we have rather few of these data points from non-European plants). Engine quality as measured by complaints per 1000 units after engines are delivered: 3-month quality data are quite good predictors of 12-month data. - In almost all engine plants, Statistical Process Control (SPC) data are collected and displayed at the line or work station. Engine plants also get back some engine performance and warranty data. - In most instances, communication of engine design information is done via fax or hardcopy. Sometimes, CAD systems (mostly 2-D) are used to exchange design dat~ however, whether CAD systems are used or not, is not a function of the age of the engine plant or of the lines. In a majority of cases, the exchange of information between the plant and the engine design department take place weekly, with actual design changes happening monthly. On average, half of the design changes are due to the engine engineering department, in order to improve the engine and to fix design or performance problems. Other causes for design changes are the meeting market needs, fixing production problems, and responding to the evolution of regulations. - All plants conduct hot testing of engines; in two facilities, only some of the engines are hottested. The test can last from 45 seconds to 18 minutes. The (few) all-aluminum engines of our survey are among those which undergo longer periods of hot testing. Less than 7% of the engines fail the hot test the first time. By looking simultaneously at the engine quality data and at the hot testing results, we did not find any correlation: hot test duration does not uncover problems which cause quality complaints 3 or 12 months after the engines are delivered to customers. Proceduresin EnginePlants(ABSTRACT) MIT /IMVP --Oct.1997 Page 3 - According toourrespondents, production technologies thatcan becritical formanufacturing high quality automotive engines concern machining operations more than the sub-assembly and final dressing ofengines; interestingly, these technologies are most often supplied by outside vendors. In addition, organizational factors are seen as much more effective than automatization, in order to produce high-quality engines. 6. Information systems - Information systems are in place in engine plants, and they are used quite extensively. - While centralized systems tend to be used mainly for planning purposes, non-centralized computer systems can help compile some statistical data and tell about equipment problems. Rarely are information systems actually used to give work assignments to employees. 7. Accounting procedures and investment decisions - For a series of recent major installations of equipment in engine plants, it took around two years between the approval of the plan and the moment when the first part was produced, and from there on, an extra three to six months for full production levels to be reached. - The top financial indicator used by car firms for measuring the "performance" of engine plants is clearly variance from budget. Some financial ratios like return on equity or return on assets are not used at all. For non-financial indicators, the quality of engines is most important, followed by safety and environment concerns, logistical issues, and labor productivity. - Product quality and internal rate of return are the two most important factors involved in engine plant investment decisions. - Most common practice is that indirect cost allocation uses standard or actual labor hours. - Activity-based costing systems were in place in 30% of the engine plants surveyed ( 1995 data). 8. Plant improvement efforts - The persons surveyed do not think that more automation will be the key for progress in engine manufacturing. For the future, a strong desire is the ability to improve the flexibility of the factory, of the machines, and of the material flow. Interestingly, the respondents most interested by flexibility improvements are based in engine plants which currently deal with rather low levels of engine variety. - On the list of factors which can help improve operations in engine plants, is the need to establish better contacts with people in the engine design department and with the suppliers of machinery. Also, being able to build more engines in less space is an important goal for several respondents; actually, those most interested by this issue are from engine plants where the utilization of space is already more efficient than on average.IMV