Resource-based conflicts in drought-prone Northwestern Kenya : the drivers and mitigation mechanisms

The theory of “resource scarcity” dominates the debate on “ecoviolence” in pastoral areas, where conflicts among communities have traditionally been linked to competition over scarce resources and invariably drought because of its role in resource depletion. However, the notion that climate change and resultant resource scarcity directly prompt violent conflict has been challenged by the notion that conflict actually coincide with periods of resource abundance. These contesting views point to nondeterministic linkage between resource availability and conflicts and, therefore, the complexity of pastoral conflicts. This is the scenario hypothesized for the vast pastoral areas of Kenya where violent conflict has become a chronic characteristic. While focusing on drought-induced conflicts over grazing resources, this paper takes cognizance of other factors that trigger and perpetuate violent conflicts in arid north-western Kenya. We present an insight on the nature, causes, dynamics and mitigation strategies of conflicts between the Turkana and Pokot pastoralists based on research study focusing on the linkages between resource availability and conflict. The findings suggest that violent conflicts in pastoral areas result from a myriad of socio-cultural, economic and political factors that reinforce one another by limiting availability of, depleting and reducing access to natural resource base. Competition for scarce natural resources triggered by frequent droughts and exacerbated by weak local institutions, proliferation of small firearms, political incitements, unclear property right regimes and cattle-raiding, was considered central to the violent conflicts observed in the area. The authors conclude that developing integrated policies and strengthening local governance institutions that are rooted in traditional practices for managing resources and inter-community conflicts is integral to the solution

Climate Smart Agriculture and Climate Information Services Training Needs for Kenya

The era of climate change, associated with changes in seasons and rising temperatures, has contributed to the worldwide decline in agricultural productivity despite the increasing global food demand. Addressing food insecurity challenges will require that Africans embrace innovative technologies in agricultural sector. Therefore, the concept of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is timely and slowly gaining considerable traction in Africa. Indeed, the concept of CSA is intended to build resilience in agricultural systems as the local farmers express their needs for adaptation and the possibility of mitigation in agricultural growth strategies to support food security. As indicated by Waaswa et al. (2021) CSA presents the opportunity to meet the world increasing food demands in the face of climate variability, and is responsive to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 2 and 13 towards achieving food security and combating climate change. During the meeting involving 21 representatives from nine (9) African countries held in Cotonou, Benin at RUFORUM’s Triennial conference on 12-13th Dec 2021, a review was initiated to provide a baseline information on preferred climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices and existing programmes in institutions of higher learning in the represented countries that included Kenya, Zambia, Ethiopia, Democratic republic of Congo, Benin, Burundi, Uganda, Ghana and Zimbabwe

Economic Valuation of Grazing Management Practices: Discrete Choice Modeling in Pastoral Systems of Kenya

This study estimates the economic contribution of grazing management practices in pastoral systems by specifically undertaking an economic analysis of pastoralists’ preferences for grazing management practices and the economic value pastoralists place on them. The study applied the discrete choice experiment technique using a D-optimal design, a multi-attribute preference elicitation method to evaluate the economic value of grazing management options practiced in pastoral areas of Kenya. The results show that pastoral communities derive positive utility in connected systems that enable reciprocal access to resources in both wet and dry seasons. Pastoralism adapts to spatial–temporal variability of pasture and water through herd mobility; hence the positive utility derived from practices that contribute to the availability of adequate water and pasture across the seasons. These findings provide empirical evidence on the social and economic net benefits of rangeland management practices that should be enhanced to promote sustainable management of rangeland resources

Time Series Analysis and Forecasting of Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Case of Kenya’s Savanna Grasslands

Climate change and climate variability is perhaps one of the major challenges facing the world today. There is an equivocal agreement that climate change is not only a threat to the economies of developing world, but also to those of the developed economies. One of the key drivers of global warming is the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Even though several studies have in the recent past evaluated various sources of GHG emissions and their associated impacts, little empirical information exists on the role played by burning savanna grasslands as far as global warming is concerned. This study is an attempt to determine the emission pattern over time and consequently forecast the linear trend in GHG emissions from the Kenya’ Savanna. Using Autoregressive (AR) modelling, the study analyzes and forecasts time series data ranging from the year 1993 to 2012. The key finding of the study indicate that emissions resulting from continual burning of Savanna grasslands will continue in an upward trend if no serious mitigation measure is put in place to revert the statusquo. Averting the current state of affairs requires policies aimed at reducing the levels of GHGs in the atmosphere for instance promotion of Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) Practices

Factors influencing livestock export in Somaliland’s terminal markets

Abstract Livestock export from Somaliland to the Arabian Peninsula countries is an important economic activity and the main source of Somaliland’s foreign exchange earnings. We have employed multiple regression time series analysis of secondary data to understand factors that influence the monthly volumes of small ruminants (sheep and goats) and cattle traded for export in three terminal markets in Somaliland. Results show that the Hajj season, number of livestock exporters active in the markets, market location and livestock ban imposed by the import countries are the main factors that influence the monthly volume of livestock transacted for export. Further, the results indicate that though drought does not influence the volume of small ruminants, it has an influence on the volume of cattle, while the implementation of quarantine stations has a significant influence on the volumes of livestock exports. Finally, border restrictions imposed by Ethiopia do not influence the volume of livestock transacted for export in the study markets. Most of the factors analysed to have influence on monthly volume livestock transacted for export are institutional and policy-related hence can be corrected though requisite regulatory, institutional and policy reforms in consultations with stakeholders

Role of camel milk in pastoral livelihoods in Kenya: contribution to household diet and income

Pastoral livestock production in Kenya is subject to unpredictable rainfall and drought occurrences. These adverse climatic conditions have led to vulnerable and insecure pastoral livelihoods. Despite the potential to alleviate food insecurity of pastoral communities through continuous provision of milk and other products, the potential of camel milk is yet to be fully explored. This study was carried out to examine the contribution of camel milk to pastoral household food baskets and incomes. A semistructured questionnaire was used to collect information targeting camel milk producers in Isiolo County, upper eastern region of Kenya. The findings show that camel milk contributes significantly to pastoral households. The contribution of the milk to a household food basket was found to be significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) during the dry season than in the wet season. Camel milk sales contributed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) to household incomes throughout the year. These results show the role of camel milk as a complementary source of food and income for pastoral households. Therefore, interventions aimed at supporting pastoral households need to consider the promotion of camel milk production and marketing as an option for building pastoralists’ resilience against unpredictable weather

ASSESSMENT OF TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION TRENDS IN KARGI, MAIKONA, DAKABARICHA AND SOLOLO WARDS OF MARSABIT COUNTY, KENYA

Background. Climate change is a global phenomenon, with varying indicators and impacts from one region to another. The impacts of the changing climate are high in developing countries that are mainly dependent on climate-driven economic sectors such as pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods. Objective. Analyze the temporal trend, the variability in temperature and precipitation, and the relationship between both parameters to determine the influence of the El Niño phenomenon in Marsabit County, Kenya, from 1981 to 2021. Methodology. Daily rainfall and temperature data for the four study locations (Maikona, Kargi, Dakabaricha, and Sololo) were obtained. The analysis of extremes was the main method used in the analysis of the temporal and spatial variability of rainfall and temperature to establish the frequency and magnitude of climate variability in the study area. The seasonal mean plus or minus 1 Standard deviation for the entire period of study was used in the analysis of extremes. Results. Findings from trend analysis showed that rainfall trends have significantly increased in Marsabit County. Further, results on seasonal trends and variability of rainfall showed that March-April-May rainfall has been decreasing over the years. Below average rainfall has been experienced in Maikona in 2000 and 2011 with a magnitude of -42.9 mm, and -39.3 mm, respectively, while below average rainfall has been experienced in Kargi in 2000, 2009, 2011, and 2012 with a magnitude of -41.7 mm, -24.2 mm, -35.3 mm, and -34.3 mm, respectively. Analysis of the temperature trends and variability showed that both night and day temperatures have significantly increased over the years in Marsabit County. The magnitude of warming was found to be double that of cooling. The regression analysis further showed that there exists a negative correlation between temperatures and rainfall, implying that generally, rainfall decreases with increasing temperatures. Implications. This finding is important because it could help policymakers and people working on development in Marsabit County see what temperature and precipitation changes are happening locally. This could help them plan for climate change better. Both pastoral and agro-pastoral areas have been affected by both El Niño and La Niña activities, with the El Niño years recording the highest amounts of rainfall while the La Niña years recording the lowest amounts. Conclusions. This study recommends the use of rainwater harvesting during the October to December Season to take advantage of the increasing Trends and flood episodes associated with high magnitudes and frequencies of above average rainfall and use the same to cope with reduced rainfall in the March to May season

Gender-Differentiated Roles and Perceptions on Climate Variability among Pastoralist and Agro-Pastoralist Communities in Marsabit, Kenya

Climate variability and its impacts affect different members of gender groups in households and society differently. Within the pastoral community, women are more vulnerable, being among the poorest of the poor, and they are expected to be highly susceptible to climate variability effects. This study assesses gender perceptions of climate variability among pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Marsabit County, Kenya. Results were triangulated with the use of data-collection techniques, including focused group discussions, individual interviews and field observations. These methods were used to analyse whether there is a difference in factors that determine the community perceptions of climate variability and trends by gender among the Marsabit pastoralist community. In analysing the study’s data, descriptive and inferential statistics were employed. The findings indicate that respondents’ perceptions of climate variability in the study area varied by gender, marital status and ethnic groups. The study reveals an increased workload of 48% for women and 32% for men resulting from climate impacts on daily household activities. In addition, the study found that 63% of male respondents primarily take on the role of decision-makers for their families, while 38% primarily serve as providers. In addition, 29% of male participants are responsible for providing security and 17% for managing family concerns within the community. In contrast, 33% of the female respondents predominantly fulfil the role of household domestic managers. The analysis further reveals that 90.3% of female and 86.8% of male respondents have noticed a decrease in rain received over time in the past two decades. This was reported to cause a burden on the most vulnerable members of the community, particularly women, by requiring them to travel long distances in search of water for household use. Gender and age affect who can access and control natural resources and household goods. This, in turn, affects the ability of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities to adapt, make a living and do other social and economic activities. The study recommends that, for climate impact adaptation measures to work, the community needs to put strategies that consider the different strengths, weaknesses and vulnerabilities of pastoral women and youth. Enactment and enforcement of gender-proactive policies and legislation that promote gender equity at the county level is highly recommended. The study further recommends using conventional weather forecasting to fill in the gaps left by the Indigenous Technical Knowledge Predictions. As a result, this study suggests that the public should be involved in creating agro-weather and climate advisories to lower vulnerability, boost resilience, boost productivity and ultimately improve the ability to adapt to climate impacts

Effects of holistic grazing management on milk production, weight gain, and visitation to grazing areas by livestock and wildlife in Laikipia County, Kenya

Background: Grazing is an important management tool for maintaining healthy ecosystems and improving rangelands productivity. However, its effectiveness for this purpose is dependent on timing and frequency of grazing, as well as the type of animal. Understanding the effects of grazing management on rangeland ecosystems is critical in ensuring sustainable use of grazing resources and enhanced livestock production. This study assessed the effects of holistic grazing on animal productivity and range use pattern in Laikipia County of Kenya. Results: The results revealed that the average milk yields (106 ± 20.1) of animals in holistic grazing areas (HGA) were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those in traditional grazing areas (TGA) (101 ± 20.1).Weight gain of animals in HGA was significantly (0.13 ± 0.01) higher as compared to those in TGA (0.07 ± 0.01). The number of livestock grazing was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in HGA (74 ± 10 %) than those in TGA (57 ± 10 %). In addition, the number of wildlife grazing was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in HGA (74 ± 18 %) than in TGA (32 ± 18 %). Conclusions: The results indicate that holistic grazing management has the potential to improve animal performance, as well as condition of range areas as evident in the preference shown by frequent visits to HGA by both livestock and wildlife