18 research outputs found

    Metabolic compartmentalization in the human cortex and hippocampus: evidence for a cell- and region-specific localization of lactate dehydrogenase 5 and pyruvate dehydrogenase

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    BACKGROUND: For a long time now, glucose has been thought to be the main, if not the sole substrate for brain energy metabolism. Recent data nevertheless suggest that other molecules, such as monocarboxylates (lactate and pyruvate mainly) could be suitable substrates. Although monocarboxylates poorly cross the blood brain barrier (BBB), such substrates could replace glucose if produced locally.The two key enzymatiques systems required for the production of these monocarboxylates are lactate dehydrogenase (LDH; EC1.1.1.27) that catalyses the interconversion of lactate and pyruvate and the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex that irreversibly funnels pyruvate towards the mitochondrial TCA and oxydative phosphorylation. RESULTS: In this article, we show, with monoclonal antibodies applied to post-mortem human brain tissues, that the typically glycolytic isoenzyme of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH-5; also called LDHA or LDHM) is selectively present in astrocytes, and not in neurons, whereas pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) is mainly detected in neurons and barely in astrocytes. At the regional level, the distribution of the LDH-5 immunoreactive astrocytes is laminar and corresponds to regions of maximal 2-deoxyglucose uptake in the occipital cortex and hippocampus. In hippocampus, we observed that the distribution of the oxidative enzyme PDH was enriched in the neurons of the stratum pyramidale and stratum granulosum of CA1 through CA4, whereas the glycolytic enzyme LDH-5 was enriched in astrocytes of the stratum moleculare, the alveus and the white matter, revealing not only cellular, but also regional, selective distributions. The fact that LDH-5 immunoreactivity was high in astrocytes and occurred in regions where the highest uptake of 2-deoxyglucose was observed suggests that glucose uptake followed by lactate production may principally occur in these regions. CONCLUSION: These observations reveal a metabolic segregation, not only at the cellular but also at the regional level, that support the notion of metabolic compartmentalization between astrocytes and neurons, whereby lactate produced by astrocytes could be oxidized by neurons

    Recurrent governance challenges in the implementation and alignment of flood risk management strategies: a review

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    In Europe increasing flood risks challenge societies to diversify their Flood Risk Management Strategies (FRMSs). Such a diversification implies that actors not only focus on flood defence, but also and simultaneously on flood risk prevention, mitigation, preparation and recovery. There is much literature on the implementation of specific strategies and measures as well as on flood risk governance more generally. What is lacking, though, is a clear overview of the complex set of governance challenges which may result from a diversification and alignment of FRM strategies. This paper aims to address this knowledge gap. It elaborates on potential processes and mechanisms for coordinating the activities and capacities of actors that are involved on different levels and in different sectors of flood risk governance, both concerning the implementation of individual strategies and the coordination of the overall set of strategies. It identifies eight overall coordination mechanisms that have proven to be useful in this respect

    A Review of Flood-Related Storage and Remobilization of Heavy Metal Pollutants in River Systems

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    Dutch dikes and risk hikes. A thematic policy evaluation of risks of flooding in the Netherlands

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    De waterkeringen die Nederland beschermen tegen overstroming vanuit de zee of de rivieren zijn nog nooit zo sterk geweest: de kans op overstroming van delen van het land is sinds de watersnoodramp van 1953 sterk verminderd. Toch is Nederland in de afgelopen jaren aanmerkelijk kwetsbaarder geworden voor het gevaar van overstroming: het overstromingsrisico is toegenomen door een sterke toename van de schade bij een eventuele overstroming. De controverse tussen sterkere dijken en een groter risico wordt grotendeels toegeschreven aan een sluipende discrepantie tussen de handhaving van wettelijk voorgeschreven normen gericht op de sterkte van dijken, en de gestaag doorgaande sociale en economische ontwikkeling. De normen zijn grotendeels gebaseerd op inzichten van de periode 1953-1960, kort na de watersnoodramp in zuidwest Nederland. De huidige ruimtelijke verdeling van de financieel-economische waarde van dijkringgebieden sluit niet langer aan bij de ruimtelijke verdeling van normniveaus in de wet. Bovendien lijkt de Nederlander overstromingen door falende dijken niet meer te zien als een natuurverschijnsel dat af en toe kan optreden. Het overstromingsgevaar lijkt te worden beschouwd als een risico vergelijkbaar met extern opgelegde risico's als industriele installaties, luchthavens en treinemplacementen. Vergelijking van het overstromingsgevaar met deze externe risico's laat zien dat de kans op veel dodelijke slachtoffers tengevolge van overstromingen veel groter is dan de kans op veel slachtoffers tengevolge van alle bekende externe risico's bij elkaar. Vergeleken met andere landen (Europa, de VS, Japan) gelden in Nederland al hogere normen voor de waterkeringen, wat ook in overeenstemming is met de hoge kwetsbaarheid van de Nederlandse samenleving (dichtbevolkte en hoogontwikkelde onder zeeniveau gelegen gebieden). Een verdere toename van het overstromingsrisico wordt voorzien, als gevolg van de verdere stijging van de zeespiegel, klimaatwijzigingen en verdere sociale en economische ontwikkeling. Technische oplossingen zijn niet langer het enige antwoord op deze toename. In de afgelopen jaren was de aandacht met name gericht op de hoogte en sterkte van waterkeringen. Opties op het gebied van de ruimtelijke ordening zijn buiten beeld gebleven. Gedacht kan worden aan het vermijden van risicovolle bouwlocaties en het compartimenteren van grote dijkringgebieden. Steun vanuit de politiek is essentieel: het verleden heeft laten zien dat deze steun enige tijd na een ramp snel inzakt.Dutch dikes, and risk hikes. A thematic policy evaluation of risks of flooding in the Netherlands. Dams in the Netherlands have never been stronger: the probability of floods from the rivers or the sea has reduced since the large flood in the south-western part of the Netherlands in 1953. Yet the risks of casualties and economic damage have become much greater since. This controversial statement has been largely attributed to a creeping discrepancy between the existent set of design standards for dike strength used for dam assessment and reinforcement programmes in the Netherlands, and a steady social and economic development. These standards, set down in national law, are, to a large extent, based on insights from the years 1953-1960. The present spatial distribution of economic interests of 'dike-rings' is no longer in accordance with the spatial variation of these economic security standards. Besides, it seems like the public no longer considers flooding in the Netherlands to be a natural hazard. Flooding seems to be regarded a risk similar to external risks such as industrial hazards and plane crashes. The risks of casualties due to flooding in the Netherlands are much greater than the known combined external risks. Compared to other countries (in Europe, the USA and Japan), the safety levels of dams in the Netherlands are already much higher, based on the high vulnerability of the population in the Netherlands, with its low-lying areas, dense population and large investments. A further increase in flooding risks is expected due to the rise in sea level, climate change and further economic and social development. Technical solutions no longer form the sole answer to this increase. Up till now focus has been on reducing chances of dike breaches by technical means. Efficient solutions in spatial planning have been overlooked. Solutions here include avoidance strategies of flood-prone areas and the construction of compartment dams to split-up large flood-prone areas in smaller ones. Political support is essential: the past has shown that this support rapidly declines after disasters.Verkeer en WaterstaatDirectoraat Generaal WaterDG-Wate

    Dutch dikes and risk hikes. A thematic policy evaluation of risks of flooding in the Netherlands

    No full text
    Dutch dikes, and risk hikes. A thematic policy evaluation of risks of flooding in the Netherlands. Dams in the Netherlands have never been stronger: the probability of floods from the rivers or the sea has reduced since the large flood in the south-western part of the Netherlands in 1953. Yet the risks of casualties and economic damage have become much greater since. This controversial statement has been largely attributed to a creeping discrepancy between the existent set of design standards for dike strength used for dam assessment and reinforcement programmes in the Netherlands, and a steady social and economic development. These standards, set down in national law, are, to a large extent, based on insights from the years 1953-1960. The present spatial distribution of economic interests of 'dike-rings' is no longer in accordance with the spatial variation of these economic security standards. Besides, it seems like the public no longer considers flooding in the Netherlands to be a natural hazard. Flooding seems to be regarded a risk similar to external risks such as industrial hazards and plane crashes. The risks of casualties due to flooding in the Netherlands are much greater than the known combined external risks. Compared to other countries (in Europe, the USA and Japan), the safety levels of dams in the Netherlands are already much higher, based on the high vulnerability of the population in the Netherlands, with its low-lying areas, dense population and large investments. A further increase in flooding risks is expected due to the rise in sea level, climate change and further economic and social development. Technical solutions no longer form the sole answer to this increase. Up till now focus has been on reducing chances of dike breaches by technical means. Efficient solutions in spatial planning have been overlooked. Solutions here include avoidance strategies of flood-prone areas and the construction of compartment dams to split-up large flood-prone areas in smaller ones. Political support is essential: the past has shown that this support rapidly declines after disasters.De waterkeringen die Nederland beschermen tegen overstroming vanuit de zee of de rivieren zijn nog nooit zo sterk geweest: de kans op overstroming van delen van het land is sinds de watersnoodramp van 1953 sterk verminderd. Toch is Nederland in de afgelopen jaren aanmerkelijk kwetsbaarder geworden voor het gevaar van overstroming: het overstromingsrisico is toegenomen door een sterke toename van de schade bij een eventuele overstroming. De controverse tussen sterkere dijken en een groter risico wordt grotendeels toegeschreven aan een sluipende discrepantie tussen de handhaving van wettelijk voorgeschreven normen gericht op de sterkte van dijken, en de gestaag doorgaande sociale en economische ontwikkeling. De normen zijn grotendeels gebaseerd op inzichten van de periode 1953-1960, kort na de watersnoodramp in zuidwest Nederland. De huidige ruimtelijke verdeling van de financieel-economische waarde van dijkringgebieden sluit niet langer aan bij de ruimtelijke verdeling van normniveaus in de wet. Bovendien lijkt de Nederlander overstromingen door falende dijken niet meer te zien als een natuurverschijnsel dat af en toe kan optreden. Het overstromingsgevaar lijkt te worden beschouwd als een risico vergelijkbaar met extern opgelegde risico's als industriele installaties, luchthavens en treinemplacementen. Vergelijking van het overstromingsgevaar met deze externe risico's laat zien dat de kans op veel dodelijke slachtoffers tengevolge van overstromingen veel groter is dan de kans op veel slachtoffers tengevolge van alle bekende externe risico's bij elkaar. Vergeleken met andere landen (Europa, de VS, Japan) gelden in Nederland al hogere normen voor de waterkeringen, wat ook in overeenstemming is met de hoge kwetsbaarheid van de Nederlandse samenleving (dichtbevolkte en hoogontwikkelde onder zeeniveau gelegen gebieden). Een verdere toename van het overstromingsrisico wordt voorzien, als gevolg van de verdere stijging van de zeespiegel, klimaatwijzigingen en verdere sociale en economische ontwikkeling. Technische oplossingen zijn niet langer het enige antwoord op deze toename. In de afgelopen jaren was de aandacht met name gericht op de hoogte en sterkte van waterkeringen. Opties op het gebied van de ruimtelijke ordening zijn buiten beeld gebleven. Gedacht kan worden aan het vermijden van risicovolle bouwlocaties en het compartimenteren van grote dijkringgebieden. Steun vanuit de politiek is essentieel: het verleden heeft laten zien dat deze steun enige tijd na een ramp snel inzakt

    How the Dutch plan to stay dry over the next Century

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    Over two-thirds of the Netherlands’ economy and half its population is below sea level. The Dutch government recently set out far-reaching recommendations on how to keep the country flood-proof over the next century given the likelihood of rising sea levels and river flows. This paper explains the recommendations, which are based on a gradual upgrading of safety standards in the light of economic growth and group casualty risk, together with triggers provided by debates and data on climate change. It concludes that protection is feasible both technically and economically, costing up to \u803 billion a year, and that the approach could be useful for other low-lying areas.Hydraulic EngineeringCivil Engineering and Geoscience
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