Predictive sensorimotor control in autism

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Oxford University Press via the DOI in this recordAutism Spectrum Disorder has been characterised by atypicalities in how predictions and sensory information are processed in the brain. To shed light on this relationship in the context of sensorimotor control we assessed prediction-related measures of cognition, perception, gaze and motor functioning in a large general population (n = 92; experiment one) and in clinicallydiagnosed autistic people (n = 29; experiment two). In both these experiments perception and action were strongly driven by prior expectations of object weight, with large items typically predicted to weigh more than equally-weighted smaller ones. Interestingly, these predictive action models were employed comparably at a sensorimotor level in both autistic and neurotypical individuals with varying levels of autistic-like traits. Specifically, initial fingertip force profiles and resulting action kinematics were both scaled according to participants’ prelift heaviness estimates, and generic visual sampling behaviours were notably consistent across groups. These results suggest that the weighting of prior information is not chronically underweighted in autism, as proposed by simple Bayesian accounts of the disorder. Instead, our results cautiously implicate context-sensitive processing mechanisms, such as precision modulation and hierarchical volatility inference. Together, these findings present novel implications for both future scientific investigations and the applied autism community.Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC

New Zealand blackcurrant extract improves high-intensity intermittent running performance.

New Zealand blackcurrant (BC) intake showed reduced blood lactate during low and moderate intensity cycling and improved 16.1 km cycling time trial performance. We examined the effect of BC on high-intensity intermittent treadmill running and post-running lactate clearance. Thirteen active males (age: 25±4 yrs, stature: 1.82±0.07 m, body mass: 81±14 kg, V̇O2max: 56±4 mL∙kg-1∙min-1, velocity at V̇O2max: 17.6±0.8 km∙h-1, mean±SD) visited the laboratory three times. In the 1st visit, a ramp protocol (0.1 km∙h-1 every 5 sec) was completed to establish V̇O2max and velocity at V̇O2max, and subjects were familiarised with the protocols. In visits 2 and 3, subjects completed an high intensity intermittent running capability test which consisted of six 19 s high-intensity running bouts, each interspersed by 15 s of low-intensity running, followed by 1 minute of rest, this was repeated at increasing speeds, until exhaustion. Prior to visits 2 and 3, subjects consumed either New Zealand BC extract (300 mg∙day-1 CurraNZ™; containing 105 mg anthocyanin) or placebo (P) (300 mg∙day-1 microcrystalline cellulose M102) for 7 days in capsules (double blind, randomised, cross-over design, wash-out at least 14 days). Blood lactate was collected for 30 min post-exhaustion. Two-tailed paired t-tests were used and significance accepted at p< .05. BC increased total running distance by 10.6% (BC: 4282±833 m, P: 3871±622 m, p = .023, 10 out of 13 subjects improved), with the distance during the high-intensity running bouts by 10.8% (p= .024). Heart rate, rating of perceived exertion and oxygen uptake were not different between conditions for each stage. At exhaustion, lactate tended to be higher for BC (BC: 6.01±1.07 mmol∙L-1, P: 5.22±1.52 mmol∙L-1, p = .066, 9 out of 13 subjects). There was a trend towards improved lactate clearance following 15 min (BC: -2.89±0.51 mmol∙L-1, P: -2.46±0.39 mmol∙L-1, p = .07) and 30 minutes of passive recovery (BC: -4.12±0.73 mmol∙L-1, P: -3.66±1.01 mmol∙L-1, p = 0.11). It is concluded that New Zealand blackcurrant extract (CurraNZ™) may enhance performance in team sports characterised by high-intensity intermittent exercise as with BC intake greater distances were covered during high-intensity running, there was higher lactate tolerance, and increased lactate clearance after high-intensity exercise

Food for thought: Dietary nootropics for the optimisation of military operators cognitive performance

Nootropics are compounds that enhance cognitive performance and have been highlighted as a medium-term human augmentation technology that could support soldier performance. Given the differing ethical, safety, and legal considerations associated with the pharmaceutical subset of nootropics, this analysis focuses on dietary supplementation which may enhance cognition during training and operations. Numerous supplements have been investigated as possible nootropics, however research is often not context specific or of high quality, leading to questions regarding efficacy. There are many other complex cofactors that may affect the efficacy of any dietary nootropic supplement which is designed to improve cognition, such as external stressors (e.g., sleep deprivation, high physical workloads), task specifics (e.g., cognitive processes required), and other psychological constructs (e.g., placebo/nocebo effect). Moreover, military population considerations, such as prior nutritional knowledge and current supplement consumption (e.g., caffeine), along with other issues such as supplement contamination should be evaluated when considering dietary nootropic use within military populations. However, given the increasing requirement for cognitive capabilities by military personnel to complete role-related tasks, dietary nootropics could be highly beneficial in specific contexts. Whilst current evidence is broadly weak, nutritional nootropic supplements may be of most use to the military end user, during periods of high military specific stress. Currently, caffeine and L-tyrosine are the leading nootropic supplements candidates within the military context. Future military specific research on nootropics should be of high quality and use externally valid methodologies to maximise the translation of research to practice

Testing the construct validity of a soccer-specific virtual reality simulator using novice, academy and professional soccer players

Virtual Reality (VR) provides the potential for immersive and engaging training solutions for improving sport performance. However, if VR training is to be adopted and used in an effective and evidence-based fashion, a more rigorous assessment of the validity of the simulation is required. Construct validity is the degree to which the simulation provides an accurate representation of core features of the task. In the context of sport, if the training drills in the VR environment are a true representation of the skills needed in the real world, then those that excel at the sport in the real world should also excel in the virtual one. In this experiment, we examined the construct validity of a soccer-specific VR simulator by recruiting professional, academy, and novice players. Seventeen participants in each group completed four VR soccer drills and the VR software provided scores relating to performance and process (e.g., passing accuracy, composure, reaction time, and adaptability). Based on these scores, an algorithm gave a diagnostic score relating to the predicted ability of the player. Results showed that this VR platform successfully differentiated between participants of differing skill levels. These results provide some support for the construct validity of this VR simulator and suggest at least partial overlap between the perceptual-cognitive and motor skills needed to perform well across ‘real’ and virtual environments. Further work is needed to explore the validity and fidelity of the simulation before its adoption as a training device can be fully endorsed

Transferability of Military-Specific Cognitive Research to Military Training and Operations

The influence of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive function is well documented (e.g., Lambourne and Tomporowski, 2010; Chang et al., 2012). However, the influence of military specific exercise on aspects of cognitive function relevant to military operations is less well understood. With the increasing physical and cognitive loads placed on military personnel (Mahoney et al., 2007), this interaction is fundamental to understanding operational performance (Russo et al., 2005). As such, ensuring the transferability of military-specific cognitive research to military training and operations, is of great importance, particularly for the development of both mitigation and enhancement strategies (see Brunyé et al., 2020). Despite this, studies have not always considered whether meaningful translations can be made. We suggest that researchers should endeavor to strike the balance between external validity and experimental control (Figure 1), and consider the concept of representative design (Pinder et al., 2011). External validity refers to the transferability of research findings from the research to the target population, whilst representative design refers to methodological approaches chosen to ensure that the experimental task constraints characterize those experienced during performance (i.e., the training or operational environment) (Pinder et al., 2011). Herein, we will focus on representative design during load carriage investigations, due to its mission criticality (Knapik and Reynolds, 2012), and it being the primary physical activity choice during military specific exercise-cognition research. Specifically, we discuss the inclusion of dual-/multi-tasking, implications of study population, cognitive task selection, and the data collection environment

The Development, and Day-to-Day Variation, of a Military-Specific Auditory N-Back Task and Shoot-/Don’t-Shoot Task

During military operations, soldiers are required to successfully complete numerous physical and cognitive tasks concurrently. Understanding the typical variance in research tools that may be used to provide insight into the interrelationship between physical and cognitive performance is therefore highly important. This study assessed the inter-day variability of two military-specific cognitive assessments; a Military-Specific Auditory N-Back Task (MSANT) and a Shoot-/Don’t-Shoot Task (SDST) in 28 participants. Limits of agreement ± 95% Confidence Intervals, Standard Error of the Mean, and Smallest Detectable Change were calculated to quantify the typical variance in task performance. All parameters within the MSANT and SDST demonstrated no mean difference for trial visit in either the seated or walking condition, with equivalency demonstrated for the majority of comparisons. Collectively, these data provided an indication of the typical variance in MSANT and SDST performance, whilst demonstrating that both assessments can be used during seated and walking conditions