Wolf Responses to Experimental Human Approaches Using High-Resolution Positioning Data

Humans pose a major mortality risk to wolves. Hence, similar to how prey respond to predators, wolves can be expected to show anti-predator responses to humans. When exposed to a threat, animals may show a fight, flight, freeze or hide response. The type of response and the circumstances (e.g., distance and speed) at which the animal flees are useful parameters to describe the responses of wild animals to approaching humans. Increasing knowledge about behavioral responses of wolves toward humans might improve appropriate management and decrease conflicts related to fear of wolves. We did a pilot study by conducting 21 approach trials on seven GPS-collared wolves in four territories to investigate their responses to experimental human approaches. We found that wolves predominantly showed a flight response (N = 18), in a few cases the wolf did not flee (N = 3), but no wolves were seen or heard during trials. When wolves were downwind of the observer the flight initiation distance was significantly larger than when upwind, consistent with the hypothesis that conditions facilitating early detection would result in an earlier flight. Our hypothesis that early detection would result in less intense flights was not supported, as we found no correlation between flight initiation distances and speed, distance or straightness of the flight. Wolves in more concealed habitat had a shorter flight initiation distance or did not flee at all, suggesting that perceived risk might have been affected by horizontal visibility. Contrary to our expectation, resettling positions were less concealed (larger horizontal visibility) than the wolves' initial site. Although our small number of study animals and trials does not allow for generalizations, this pilot study illustrates how standardized human approach trials with high-resolution GPS-data can be used to describe wolf responses at a local scale. In continuation, this method can be applied at larger spatial scales to compare wolf flight responses within and between populations and across anthropogenic gradients, thus increasing the knowledge of wolf behavior toward humans, and potentially improving coexistence with wolves across their range

Wolf Responses to Experimental Human Approaches Using High-Resolution Positioning Data

Humans pose a major mortality risk to wolves. Hence, similar to how prey respond to predators, wolves can be expected to show anti-predator responses to humans. When exposed to a threat, animals may show a fight, flight, freeze or hide response. The type of response and the circumstances (e.g., distance and speed) at which the animal flees are useful parameters to describe the responses of wild animals to approaching humans. Increasing knowledge about behavioral responses of wolves toward humans might improve appropriate management and decrease conflicts related to fear of wolves. We did a pilot study by conducting 21 approach trials on seven GPS-collared wolves in four territories to investigate their responses to experimental human approaches. We found that wolves predominantly showed a flight response (N = 18), in a few cases the wolf did not flee (N = 3), but no wolves were seen or heard during trials. When wolves were downwind of the observer the flight initiation distance was significantly larger than when upwind, consistent with the hypothesis that conditions facilitating early detection would result in an earlier flight. Our hypothesis that early detection would result in less intense flights was not supported, as we found no correlation between flight initiation distances and speed, distance, or straightness of the flight. Wolves in more concealed habitat had a shorter flight initiation distance or did not flee at all, suggesting that perceived risk might have been affected by horizontal visibility. Contrary to our expectation, resettling positions were less concealed (larger horizontal visibility) than the wolves’ initial site. Although our small number of study animals and trials does not allow for generalizations, this pilot study illustrates how standardized human approach trials with high-resolution GPS-data can be used to describe wolf responses at a local scale. In continuation, this method can be applied at larger spatial scales to compare wolf flight responses within and between populations and across anthropogenic gradients, thus increasing the knowledge of wolf behavior toward humans, and potentially improving coexistence with wolves across their range.publishedVersio

Classification of behaviors of free-ranging cattle using accelerometry signatures collected by virtual fence collars

Precision farming technology, including GPS collars with biologging, has revolutionized remote livestock monitoring in extensive grazing systems. High resolution accelerometry can be used to infer the behavior of an animal. Previous behavioral classification studies using accelerometer data have focused on a few key behaviors and were mostly conducted in controlled situations. Here, we conducted behavioral observations of 38 beef cows (Hereford, Limousine, Charolais, Simmental/NRF/Hereford mix) free-ranging in rugged, forested areas, and fitted with a commercially available virtual fence collar (Nofence) containing a 10Hz tri-axial accelerometer. We used random forest models to calibrate data from the accelerometers on both commonly documented (e.g., feeding, resting, walking) and rarer (e.g., scratching, head butting, self-grooming) behaviors. Our goal was to assess pre-processing decisions including different running mean intervals (smoothing window of 1, 5, or 20 seconds), collar orientation and feature selection (orientation-dependent versus orientation-independent features). We identified the 10 most common behaviors exhibited by the cows. Models based only on orientation-independent features did not perform better than models based on orientation-dependent features, despite variation in how collars were attached (direction and tightness). Using a 20 seconds running mean and orientation-dependent features resulted in the highest model performance (model accuracy: 0.998, precision: 0.991, and recall: 0.989). We also used this model to add 11 rarer behaviors (each98%). Our study suggests that the accelerometers in the Nofence collars are suitable to identify the most common behaviors of free-ranging cattle. The results of this study could be used in future research for understanding cattle habitat selection in rugged forest ranges, herd dynamics, or responses to stressors such as carnivores, as well as to improve cattle management and welfare.publishedVersio

Small rodent monitoring at Birkebeiner road, Norway

Background. Northern small mammal populations are renowned for their multi-annual population cycles. Population cycles are multi-faceted and have extensive impacts on the rest of the ecosystem. In 2011, we started a student-based research activity to monitor the variation of small rodent density along an elevation gradient following the Birkebeiner Road, in southeast Norway. Fieldwork was conducted by staff and students at the University campus Evenstad, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, which has a long history of researching cyclic population dynamics. The faculty has a strong focus on engaging students in all parts of the research activities, including data collection. Small rodents were monitored using a set of snap trap stations. Trapped animals were measured (e.g. body mass, body length, sex) and dissected to assess their reproductive status. We also characterised the vegetation at trapping sites. New information. We provide a dataset of small rodent observations that show fluctuating population dynamics across an elevation gradient (300 m to 1,100 m a.s.l) and in contrasting habitats. This dataset encompasses three peaks of the typical 3-4-year vole population cycles; the number of small rodents and shrews captured show synchrony and peaked in years 2014, 2017 and 2021. The bank vole Myodes glareolus was by far (87%) the most common species trapped, but also other species were observed (including shrews). We provide digital data collection forms and highlight the importance of long-term data collection.publishedVersio

Interaktioner mellan järv, varg och människa – nyttjande av vargdödade klövdjur och slaktrester från älgjakten

Järven har under senare tid etablerat sig i Inre Skandinaviens skogsområden vilket även är vargens huvudsakliga utbredningsområde i Skandinavien. Det finns lite kunskap om järvens matvanor i detta område då mycket av den befintliga kunskapen om järven kommer från studier i fjälltrakterna. Järvar som lever i vargrevir har tillgång till föda från vargdödade klövdjur året om. Andelen tillgänglig mat från vargarnas byten varierar med deras storlek, då vargarna förtär en större andel av de ätliga delarna på mindre bytesdjur. Hur mycket vargarna lämnar efter sig varierar också med tid på året, då det t.ex., blir mindre mat över till asätande arter under sommaren. Människan bidrar också med stora mängder slaktrester under älgjakten och denna födoresurs nyttjas av olika asätare inklusive järv och varg. Slaktrester från älgjakten är dock sannolikt tillgängligt under en mer begränsad del av året jämfört med rester som vargar lämnat efter sig. Vargen kan, som den större arten, döda järvar vilket kan innebära en risk för järven både när den konsumerar det som vargen lämnat efter sig och andra födokällor. För rovdjur kan konkurrens ske via direkta interaktioner mellan individer av olika arter där strider kan orsaka skador eller dödlig utgång för en av antagonisterna. Utfallet vid denna typ av konkurrens avgörs till stor del av skillnader i kroppsstorlek där den större arten vanligtvis är dominant över den mindre. Mindre och ensamlevande arter förväntas vara mer vaksamma när de nyttjar rester efter andra rovdjurs byten då de har en ökad risk att bli dödade av större konkurrenter. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka i vilken omfattning som järven och andra asätare nyttjar födokällor som vargen och människan lämnar efter sig i skogen, med fokus på interaktioner mellan varg, järv, räv och mård och deras beteende vid olika födokällor. Viltkameror sattes upp i träd vid vargdödade klövdjur under oktober och mars-juni och vid slaktrester från älgjakten under oktober-november (i denna studie använder vi termen ’slaktrester’ för inälvor och vom som lämnas i skogen efter urtagen älg). Kamerorna tog bilder vid rörelse framför kameran samt var 5:e minut för att inte missa mindre arter som inte triggar igång rörelsedetektorn. Innehåll på alla foton från de 28 första dagarna gicks igenom med avseende på art, antal individer och beteende (vaksam, äter, övrigt beteende). Vi fick totalt 406 907 foton under studieperioden. Av dessa var 91 318 från 14 vargdödade klövdjur och 315 589 från 42 slaktrester från älgjakten. Vid både vargdödade klövdjur och slaktrester från älgjakten var sannolikheten för besök av räv högre än för de andra arterna. Vid vargdödade klövdjur var sannolikheten för besök av varg något högre än sannolikheten för besök av järv. Vid slaktresterna från älgjakten var det ingen skillnad mellan varg och järv. Räv gjorde fler besök vid vargdödade klövdjur jämfört med de andra arterna. Järv och mård spenderade en större andel av besöken med att äta jämfört med vaksamhet, medan räv spenderade mer tid på vaksamhet jämfört med ätande. Varg var den enda av arterna som inte visade någon skillnad i andelen vaksamhet jämfört med andelen ätande. Dygnsrytmen hos samtliga arter var huvudsakligen nattaktiv på slaktrester och deras aktivitetsmönster påverkades inte av huruvida slaktresterna var besökta av varg eller inte. Järvens pågående kolonisation av skogslandet i Inre Skandinavien kan komma att påverka andra asätares nyttjande av olika matplatser, och särskilt då för slaktrester från älgjakten. Med reservation för en liten provstorlek för vargdödade klövdjur i denna studie så pekar inget på att järven kommer att ha en stor inverkan på vargens predationstakt på älg och därmed inte heller på det möjliga jaktuttaget av älg

A Standardized Method for Experimental Human Approach Trials on Wild Wolves

"Copyright © 2022 Eriksen, Versluijs, Fuchs, Zimmermann, Wabakken, Ordiz, Sunde, Wikenros, Sand, Gillich, Michler, Nordli, Carricondo-Sanchez, Gorini and Rieger. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms"As wolves recolonize areas of Europe ranging from moderate to high anthropogenic impact, fear of wolves is a recurring source of conflict. Shared tools for evaluating wolf responses to humans, and comparing such responses across their range, can be valuable. Experiments in which humans approach wild wolves can increase our understanding of how wolves respond to humans, facilitating human-wolf coexistence. We have developed the first standardized protocol for evaluating wolf responses to approaching humans using high-resolution GPS data, and tested it on wild wolves. We present a field protocol for experimentally approaching GPS-collared wolves, a descriptive comparison of two statistical methods for detecting a measurable flight response, a tutorial for identifying wolf flight initiation and resettling positions, and an evaluation of the method when reducing GPS positioning frequency. The field protocol, a data collection form, and the tutorial with R code for extracting flight parameters are provided. This protocol will facilitate studies of wolf responses to approaching humans, applicable at a local, national, and international level. Data compiled in a standardized way from multiple study areas can be used to quantify the variation in wolf responses to humans within and between populations, and in relation to predictors such as social status, landscape factors, or human population density, and to establish a baseline distribution of wolf response patterns given a number of known predictors. The variation in wolf responses can be used to assess the degree to which results can be generalized to areas where GPS studies are not feasible, e.g., for predicting the range of likely wolf behaviors, assessing the likelihood of wolf-human encounters, and complementing existing tools for evaluating reports of bold wolves. Showing how wolves respond to human encounters should help demystify the behavior of wild wolves toward humans in their shared habitat.publishedVersio

A Standardized Method for Experimental Human Approach Trials on Wild Wolves

publishedVersio

Elgvandringer i grenseland med følger for skogbruk, jakt og rovdyr

Forvaltning av elg i områder med en delvis trekkende elgbestand byr på utfordringer, fordi kostnadene i form av beiteskader på skogen og goder i form av elgjakt ofte berører forskjellige grunneiere. Dette blir ytterligere komplisert når elgtrekket går på tvers av forvaltningsinndelinger eller til og med over riksgrensen. GRENSEVILT har studert samspillet mellom elg, ulv, skogbruk og jakt i nordre Finnskogen, et stort barskogsområde som er delt av riksgrensen. For å berenge størrelsenpå elgbestanden og beskrive den romlige fordelingen av elg for vintrene 2019/20 og 2020/21, samt somrene 2020 og 2021,har vi gjennomført elgmøkktellinger over et areal på mer enn 3500 km2. Vi ønsket også å studere hvordan elgtrekket påvirker ulvens områdebruk, beitepå furu, og jaktuttaket. Derfor har vived hjelp av GPS-halsbånd analysert områdebruken til fire ulveflokker i samme område. Dessuten gjennomførte vi på våren 2021 en stor beitetakst som kombinerte den norke Solbraa-og den svenske Äbin-metoden. Til slutt har vi sammenstilt jaktdata fra norske vald og svenske älgjaktområder for jaktårene 2019/20 og 2020/21.Vi beregnet elgens tetthet for tidsserien vinter 2019/20, sommer 2020, vinter 2020/21, og sommer 2021 til henholdsvis 1,18, 1,37, 1,01, og 1,70dyr/km2. Om sommeren var elgen noksåjevnt fordelt over hele studieområdet, og om vinteren stod elgen mer konsentrert i de snøfattige områdene, mens det var lite elgi de nordlige, snørike områdene. Til tross for at elgens fordeling endret seg mellom sommer og vinter, opprettholdt ulveflokkene de samme revirgrensene gjennom hele året. Derimot tilpasset de sine aktivitetsområder innenfor revirgrensene til endringen i elgfordelingen. Elgens vinterkonsentrasjonsområder var kjennetegnet ved et større beitetrykk på furu. Skader på produksjontrær var mest hyppig langs dalbunnen og i områder med mye lauvkratt, men vi fant ikke noe tydelig sammenheng mellom skadegrad og elgens vinterfordeling. Elgens effekt på skogbruk målt med den norske Solbraa-metoden viste at beitegraden på furu var stort sett liten. Den svenske Äbin-metoden tegnet et helt motsatt bilde, og bedømmetskadegraden på de samme prøveflatenesomsvært alvorlig. Jaktuttaket i jaktområdene gjenspeilet fordelingen av elg sommerstid i Norge, men ikke i Sverige, der det ble skutt mest elg i områdene med lavest sommertetthet. De hardest beskattede jaktområdene i Sverige hadde en lavere elgtetthet vinteren etter jakt. Vi fant ikke noensammenheng mellom beite-eller skadegrad på furu og jaktuttak i jaktområdene. I den østlige delen av studieområdet som har et stort innslag av trekkelg som oppholder seg på norsk side på sommeren og under jakta, men trekker til Sverige når snøen hoper seg opp lenger nord, var det en tydelig mismatch i forvaltningen av elg mellom de to landene. Mens man i Sverige satset på et høyt jaktuttak for å få bukt med beiteskader,og i tillegg beskattet trekkelg ved januarjakt,sparte man på avskytingen på norsk side fordi beitegraden ikke var bekymringverdigog elgens sommerbestand også ble utsatt for ulvens uttak i tillegg til vinterjakt på svensk side .Vi foreslår en bedre samordning av elgforvaltningen på tvers av riksgrensen. Det krever dialog og samarbeid mellom rettighetshaverne. Et felles elgforvaltningsområde som strekker seg over grensen og dekker trekkelgens helårsområde hadde gjort et slikt samarbeid enklere. Dessuten foreslår vi en samordning av beitetakstmetoden og en felles trafikklysmodell som baserer seg på tetthet av uskadde produksjonstrær heller enn beite-eller skadegraden

Wolf-human interaction: a method and pilot study for experimental human approaches on wild, GPScollared wolves

Wolves are recolonising human-dominated landscapes, which increases conflicts as people express fear based on the perception that wolves are dangerous and unpredictable. Increasing knowledge about behavioural responses of wolves towards humans might improve appropriate management and decrease conflicts. Nowadays, behavioural responses can be monitored with high-resolution GPS data. I conducted trials in which wild, GPS-collared wolves were approached by humans. Based on these trials, I developed a standardised method for extracting variables such as flight initiation and resettling using statistical process control (SPC). Furthermore, I conducted a pilot study exploring the first results of experimental human approaches on wolves using GPS data. Experimental approach trials were conducted on six individual wolves over two years within three wolf territories along the border between Norway and Sweden. In this thesis, I compared two statistical process control methods for determining the flight initiation distance (FID) during wolf approaches: the upper control limit (UCL) and the changepoint method. The FID is often used to describe the magnitude of an animal’s response to a disturbance. Both methods performed similarly well for detecting the flight initiation. However, changepoint analyses increase reproducibility and comparability for this type of studies. Additionally, I used changepoint analyses to determine the moment of resettling. In the pilot study, I used changepoint analyses to extract both flight initiation and resettling. Human-caused disturbance could result in anti-predator behaviour, even in apex predators. The intensity of the flight response may be a function of the wolf’s perception of risk. Therefore, I measured flight distance, displacement, speed and straightness as measures of flight intensity. For 17 wolf-human interactions within this pilot study, I found a correlation between longer flight duration, distance, displacement and higher speed, indicating that these are associated with higher flight intensity. Two observers rather than one, wind blowing away from the wolf, and a higher noise level resulted in higher flight intensities, suggesting a combined effect of detectability and perceived risk. Additionally, I found that the perceived risk might be affected by horizontal cover, as wolves that were more concealed stayed longer at their initial site. Generally, the wolves’ flight patterns diverted away from the observer and none of the wolves were seen or heard during approach trials. Future studies might inform conservation and management, as human-wildlife conflicts are increasing. Increasing knowledge of wolf behaviour towards humans might improve coexistence with carnivores

Wolf Responses to Experimental Human Approaches Using High-Resolution Positioning Data

Humans pose a major mortality risk to wolves. Hence, similar to how prey respond to predators, wolves can be expected to show anti-predator responses to humans. When exposed to a threat, animals may show a fight, flight, freeze or hide response. The type of response and the circumstances (e.g., distance and speed) at which the animal flees are useful parameters to describe the responses of wild animals to approaching humans. Increasing knowledge about behavioral responses of wolves toward humans might improve appropriate management and decrease conflicts related to fear of wolves. We did a pilot study by conducting 21 approach trials on seven GPS-collared wolves in four territories to investigate their responses to experimental human approaches. We found that wolves predominantly showed a flight response (N = 18), in a few cases the wolf did not flee (N = 3), but no wolves were seen or heard during trials. When wolves were downwind of the observer the flight initiation distance was significantly larger than when upwind, consistent with the hypothesis that conditions facilitating early detection would result in an earlier flight. Our hypothesis that early detection would result in less intense flights was not supported, as we found no correlation between flight initiation distances and speed, distance, or straightness of the flight. Wolves in more concealed habitat had a shorter flight initiation distance or did not flee at all, suggesting that perceived risk might have been affected by horizontal visibility. Contrary to our expectation, resettling positions were less concealed (larger horizontal visibility) than the wolves’ initial site. Although our small number of study animals and trials does not allow for generalizations, this pilot study illustrates how standardized human approach trials with high-resolution GPS-data can be used to describe wolf responses at a local scale. In continuation, this method can be applied at larger spatial scales to compare wolf flight responses within and between populations and across anthropogenic gradients, thus increasing the knowledge of wolf behavior toward humans, and potentially improving coexistence with wolves across their range