A reason for unreason: returns based beliefs in game theory

Players cooperate in experiments more than game theory would predict. We introduce the ‘returns-based beliefs’ approach: the expected returns of a particular strategy in proportion to total expected returns of all strategies. Using a decision analytic solution concept, Luce’s (1959) probabilistic choice model, and ‘hyperpriors’ for ambiguity in players’ cooperability, our approach explains empirical observations in various classes of games including the Prisoner’s and Traveler’s Dilemmas. Testing the closeness of fit of our model on Selten and Chmura (2008) data for completely mixed 2 × 2 games shows that with loss aversion, returns-based beliefs explain the data better than other equilibrium concepts

Dominance and Innovation

Do dominant or less dominant firms innovate more? Theoretically it has been shown that within an asymmetric mixed strategy game of a patent race, the less dominant firm invests more than the dominant firm. But the empirical data on patent races is divided. In this paper, we argue that the decisions that concern strategic choice in innovation may be influenced by expected relative returns. Our approach, which we call the returns-based beliefs approach, is based upon subjective probabilities. It combines a decision analytic solution concept and Luce’s (1959) probabilistic choice model. In particular, we show how the use of the returns-based beliefs approach provides support for the thesis that dominant firms invest more in R&D within an asymmetric mixed strategy game. Consequently, we argue that the returns-based beliefs approach is more in line with recent empirical studies of innovation. We also provide empirical evidence using UK R&D data across a range of industries from 2001-2006 that shows that firms’ spending on R&D is related more to their own profitability than that of their competitors, which is consistent with the returns-based beliefs approach. We discuss the managerial implications of our theoretical approach and the empirical findings

Communication and Marketing of Services by Religious Organizations in India

Marketing communication is a vital strategic tool for religious organizations to achieve competitive differentiation. The determinants of religious organizations’ use of direct and indirect communication channels offers valuable insights into their modus operandi. This paper uses novel primary survey data on 568 Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Jain organizations spread over 7 major states in India that we collected over the period 2006-2008, to investigate the determinants of communication channel selection by religious organizations. The findings suggest that state-specific effects for Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; and religion-specific fixed effects for Muslims play a predominant and persistent role in communication channel selection decisions. Religious organizations adopt direct channels more extensively to communicate changes to non-religious service provision. In a competitive framework, religious organizations also use indirect channels more extensively in response to information received about competitors. Additionally, intensive market competition leads religious organizations to increase their use of direct channels in response to information received about competitors through direct channels. Collectively, the findings suggest that across all religions in India, marketing communication plays a very important role for religious organizations in order for them to differentiate themselves from other competitors

Divine competition: Religious organizations and service provision in India

This paper examines religious and non-religious service provision by religious organisations in India. We present a stylized Hotelling-style model in which two religious organisations differentiate hemselves on the strength of religious beliefs in order to compete in attracting adherents. We show in the model two central predictions: first,that the organisations will differentiate themselves on the strength of religious beliefs. Second, that in equilibrium, economic inequality makes the organisations increase their provision of non-religious services. To test this, we present unique primary survey dataon the economics of religion, collected by us between 2006 and 2010 from 568 Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Jain religious organisations spread across 7 Indian states. We use these data to demonstrate that the organisations have substantially increasedtheir provision of non-religious services. We also provide quantitative evidence based oneconometric testing to highlight that religious organisations are differenting themselves on the strength of religious beliefs with respect to other organisations, and are also providing higher education and health services as economic inequality increases in India

Divine Competition: Religious Organisations and Service Provision in India

This paper examines religious and non-religious service provision by religious organisations in India. We present a stylized Hotelling-style model in which two religious organisations differentiate hemselves on the strength of religious beliefs in order to compete in attracting adherents. We show in the model two central predictions: first,that the organisations will differentiate themselves on the strength of religious beliefs. Second, that in equilibrium, economic inequality makes the organisations increase their provision of non-religious services. To test this, we present unique primary survey dataon the economics of religion, collected by us between 2006 and 2010 from 568 Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Jain religious organisations spread across 7 Indian states. We use these data to demonstrate that the organisations have substantially increasedtheir provision of non-religious services. We also provide quantitative evidence based oneconometric testing to highlight that religious organisations are differenting themselves on the strength of religious beliefs with respect to other organisations, and are also providing higher education and health services as economic inequality increases in India

Screening of Mutants in Black Gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) With Effect of DES and COH in M2 Generation

Cultivars developed using induced mutants may carry improvements in a wide variety of characteristics. Induced mutant cultivars also have proved to be outstanding parents for further cultivar development. The efficiency of induced mutations in increasing genetic variability has been demonstrated in several crops and a number of varieties have been evolved. In the present investigation, chlorophyll mutants chlorino, albino, xantha, variegata and viridis and morphological mutants such as, dwarf, tall, onostem, tiny leaves, hairy leaves, male sterility, brown seed, early maturity, long pod, bottom branching, top branching, trailing, spreading, and bushy type in M2 generation from both Diethyl sulphate (DES) and Colchicine (COH) treated populations. Mutants and mutant derivatives when used in cross breeding were found to be more productive in the development of improved varieties of black gram. Moreover, induced mutations have recently become the subject of molecular investigations leading to descriptions of the structure and function of related genes. Mutated genes have therefore; become valuable material to plant breeders and molecular biologists for understanding not only the function but also in isolating and shuffling the genes between varieties

The Results of Treatment with Streptomycin Plus Pyrazinamide in Patients with Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis Despite Prolonged Treatment with Isoniazid Plus PAS

This report presents the findings during a year or more of observation of 20 South Indian patients who, after an initial course of isoniazid plus PAS, were treated with streptomycin plus pyrazinamide for active pulmonary tuberculosis. The combination of streptomycin plus pyrazinamide was chosen, first, because of its likely therapeutic effectiveness, since all the patients had streptomycin-sensitive strains of bacilli, secondly, because it presented an opportunity to study supervised drug administration in domiciliary patients in a community in which the selfadministration of antituberculosis drugs could not be depended on (Fox, 1958 ; Tuberculosis Chemotherapy Centre, 1959, 1960 ; Velu et al., 1960). The patients were either unsuitable for or unwilling to undergo surgery

A Comparison of the Results of Bacteriological Examination of a Sputum Collection and a Pair of Laryngeal Swab Specimens in Patients Receiving Chemotherapy for Pulmonary Tuberculosis

pulmonary tuberculosis is of prime importance. The most valuable assessment of a treatment is its effect on the bacterial population of the sputum. A reduction in the number of organisms being excreted, or their complete elimination, is the best evidence that the patient is responding to treatment, and bacteriological negativity is the crucial desideratum of the quiescence of the disease (American Trudeau Society, 1959; Devadatta et al., 1961). In a previous report from this Centre (Andrews and Radhakrishna, 1959) a comparison was made of the results of smear and culture examinations of specimens of sputum obtained in 2 different ways from patients receiving chemotherapy. It was found that “spot” specimens, that is, specimens produced in the Centre within the course of a few minutes were less frequently positive than “collection” specimens, that is, specimens produced overnight in the home. During treatment and usually within a few months of the start of effective chemotherapy, the majority of patients find it difficult to expectorate and it, therefore, becomes of interest to study the relative usefulness of collection specimens of sputum and laryngeal swabs in detecting the presence of tubercle bacilli. This report presents the results of a comparison of an overnight collection specimen of sputum (referred to as sputum specimen in the rest of the report) with a pair of laryngeal swabs (considered as a single specimen in the laboratory) taken from patients during the third to twelfth month of anti-tuberculosis chemotherapy

Probabilistic Choice Models

We examine a number of probabilistic choice models in which people might form their beliefs to play their strategies in a game theoretic setting in order to propose alternative equilibrium concepts to the Nash equilibrium. In particular, we evaluate the Blavatskyy model, Returns Based Beliefs (RBB) model, Quantal Response Equilibrium (QRE) model, Boundedly Rational Nash Equilibrium (BRNE) model and the Utility Proportional Beliefs (UPB) model. We outline the foundational axioms for these models and fully explicate them in terms of probabilistic actions, probabilistic beliefs and their epistemic characterizations. We test the model predictions using empirical data and show which models perform better under which conditions. We also extend the Blavatskyy model which was developed to consider games with two actions to cases where there are three or more actions. We provide a nuanced understanding of how different types of probabilistic choice models might predict better than others

Divine Innovation: Religion and Service Provision by Religious Organizations in India

This paper examines innovations to religious and non-religious service provision by religious organizations in India. We present a stylized Hotelling-style model in which two religious organizations position themselves at opposite locations to differentiate themselves on the religious spectrum in order to compete to attract adherents. Moreover, the model predicts that economic inequality can make both organizations increase their provision of non-religious services to retain adherents. In order to test our propositions, we present unique primary survey data on the economics of religion that we have collected from 2006-2008 on 568 Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Jain religious organizations spread across seven Indian states. We use these data to provide qualitative and descriptive statistics from the survey that is consistent and provides initial support for our propositions. We show that these organizations have substantially increased their provision of religious and non-religious services, but that there are significant variations by religion. We also provide quantitative evidence based on econometric testing to highlight that Indian religious organizations are maximizing the differences in their ideology with respect to other organizations, and are also providing higher education and health services as economic inequality increases in India