Identifying diachronic changes in ochre behaviours throughout the Upper Palaeolithic (ca. 44-12.5 kya) of Southwestern Germany

The archaeological assemblage from the Upper Palaeolithic levels (ca. 44-14.5 kya) of Hohle Fels cave in southwestern Germany is central to our understanding of the beginnings of anatomically modern humans (AMHs) in Europe and their behaviours, including the capacity for symbolic mediation. The use and manipulation of mineral pigments is understood to be one of the earliest forms of symbolic expression and plays a pivotal role in our understanding of behavioural modernity. Of the mineral pigments, a series of Fe-oxide based materials colloquially referred to as “ochre” are the oldest and most widespread pigment found at archaeological sites worldwide. Understanding its role in human behaviours, the intricacies surrounding its collection and use, and the lasting imprint it left is thus of utmost relevance in order to investigate the behavioural evolution of our hominin lineage. The goal of my dissertation is to use a holistic approach to conduct a diachronic study of the ochre assemblage from Hohle Fels cave in southwestern Germany. Ultimately, my aim is to investigate the ways in which humans interacted with ochre in order to expand our understanding of their behavioural complexity during the earliest onset of the Aurignacian (ca. 44kcal. BP) and how these changed over time. Since ochre is a multi-faceted item with a range of uses and occurs in a variety of geological contexts, a diverse approach is best suited to explore its life-cycle and in what ways humans shaped and were impacted by their interactions with ochre. I present my thesis results in three stages, represented by three papers that are either published or ready for peer-review publication. The first stage used previously established categorical or qualitative methods to document the size, types, and overall presence of ochre artefacts at Hohle Fels. This investigation allowed observation of temporal patterns in visual and textural characteristics of ochres. It furthermore demonstrated that there are significant differences in the types of ochre collected during the Aurignacian (ca. 44-34 kcal. BP) and later time periods, namely, that ochre colours and textures were more varied during the Aurignacian which narrowed to a preference for purple, silty and micaceous ochres during the Gravettian (34-30.5 kya) and Magdalenian (16.5-14.5 kya). The traces of anthropogenic use during the later time periods are more in line with pigment powder production, while in the Aurignacian only a stylised motif is present. The second stage involved conducting a survey nearby Hohle Fels as well as in other areas, in order to locate Fe-oxide sources which could have provided the ochre materials to cave inhabitants. This also ties into the third stage, which aimed to geochemically characterize a selection of ochre artefacts from Hohle Fels using neutron activation analysis (NAA) and compare these with the source materials to conduct a provenance-based analysis. These two stages revealed that there are several compositional groups acquired from different sources represented in the ochre assemblage, most of which were locally-based. However, two compositional groups showed that ochre acquisition was not only restricted to local areas, and even during the Aurignacian ochre was transported over great distances (ca. 300 km). Furthermore, several of these sources were accessed throughout the entire Upper Palaeolithic, showing that groups of people were sharing knowledge through generations and were remaining loyal to certain source areas during a vastly changing environment and climate. The last aspect of the third stage involved the incorporation of ochres from the nearby cave sites of Geißenklösterle and Vogelherd, in order to explore whether ochre behaviours were shared between the cave sites. The results showed that people were indeed sharing or accessing the same ochres, but some were kept exclusive to certain groups as is seen with the ochre from Hohle Fels and Geißenklösterle. The data on the ochre materials, both archaeological and modern, coupled with environmental and climatic data, revealed that people were adapting when necessary, but also maintaining behaviours over time. Overall, the combination of all of these methods and techniques allowed for new and unique insights into the ways that people communicated with each other, interacted with their landscape, and how ochre formed a part of their lives throughout the Upper Palaeolithic.Die archäologischen Inventare aus den jungpaläolithischen Schichten (ca. 44–14,5 kya) der Hohle Fels-Höhle im Südwesten Deutschlands sind zentrale Bestandteile unseres Verständnisses der Anfänge des anatomisch modernen Menschen (AMHs) in Europa und seines Verhaltens, einschließlich seiner Kapazität zur symbolischen Vermittlung. Die Verwendung und Manipulation von Mineralpigmenten wird als eine der frühesten symbolischen Ausdrucksformen verstanden und spielt eine entscheidende Rolle in unserem Verständnis modernen Verhaltens (behavioural modernity). Mineralische Pigmente auf Eisenoxid-Basis, die umgangssprachlich als „Ocker“ oder „Rötel“ bezeichnet werden, sind die ältesten und am weitesten verbreiteten Mineralpigmente, die weltweit an archäologischen Stätten gefunden werden. Das Verständnis ihrer Rolle im menschlichen Verhalten und der Komplexität der Beschaffung und Verarbeitung sowie der bleibende Eindruck, den diese Mineralien hinterlassen, sind daher von größter Bedeutung, um die Verhaltensentwicklung der Hominin-Linie zu untersuchen. Das Ziel meiner Dissertation ist es, mit einem ganzheitlichen Ansatz eine diachrone Untersuchung der Ocker- und Rötelinventare vom Hohle Fels durchzuführen. Letztendlich ist mein Ziel zu untersuchen, wie Menschen mit Ocker interagierten, um unser Verständnis der Komplexität ihres Verhaltensweisen am Beginn des Aurignacien (ca. 44 kya) zu erweitern und zu untersuchen, wie sich diese im Laufe der Zeit verändert haben. Da es sich bei Ocker um ein Material mit einer Vielzahl von Verwendungsmöglichkeiten handelt und es in verschiedenen geologischen Kontexten vorkommt, ist ein breit gefächerter Ansatz am besten geeignet, seinen Lebenszyklus und die Art und Weise, wie der Mensch durch die Wechselwirkung mit Ocker beeinflusst wurde, zu untersuchen. Ich lege die Ergebnisse meine Dissertation in drei Phasen vor, die durch drei Artikel repräsentiert werden oder eingereicht sind beziehungsweise sich im Review-Prozess durch Fachkollegen befinden. In der ersten Stufe wurden zuvor festgelegte kategoriale oder qualitative Methoden verwendet, um die Größe, die Art und das gesamte Vorhandensein von Ocker- und Rötelartefakten im Hohle Fels zu dokumentieren. Diese Untersuchung ermöglichte die Beobachtung von Mustern in visuellen und texturellen Merkmalen von Ocker im Lauf der Zeit. Es zeigte sich weiterhin, dass es größere Unterschiede bei den Ockertypen im Aurignacien (ca. 44-34 kya) als in späteren Zeiträumen gibt. Diese variieren in Farbtönen und Texturen viel stärker als in späteren Zeitabschnitten, wo es eine Präferenz für lilafarbenen, feinkörnigen und glimmerhaltigen Ocker im Gravettien (34-30,5 kya) und im Magdalénien (16,5-14,5 kya) gibt. Die Spuren des anthropogenen Gebrauchs in den beiden letzteren Zeitstufen entsprechen eher Spuren der Pigmentpulverproduktion, während in der Aurignacien nur ein stilisiertes Motiv vorhanden ist. Die zweite Phase umfasste die Durchführung einer Geländebegehung in der Nähe des Hohle Fels sowie in anderen, weiter entfernten Gebieten, um Eisenoxid-Quellen zu lokalisieren, die die Mineralische Pigmente hätten liefern können. Dies knüpft auch an die dritte Stufe an, die darauf abzielte, eine Auswahl von Ockerartefakten vom Hohle Fels mithilfe der Neutronenaktivierungsanalyse (NAA) geochemisch zu bestimmen und diese mit den aufgesammelten Materialproben zu vergleichen, um eine Herkunftsanalyse durchzuführen. Diese beiden Stadien ergaben, dass es mehrere Kompositionsgruppen im Ockerinventar gibt, die aus verschiedenen Quellen stammen, und von denen die meisten lokal vorkommen. Zwei Kompositionsgruppen zeigten jedoch, dass die Beschaffung von Ocker nicht nur auf lokale Gebiete beschränkt war, sondern dass Ocker im Aurignacien auch über große Entfernungen (ca. 300 km) transportiert wurde. Darüber hinaus wurde auf mehrere dieser Lagerstätten im Verlauf des gesamten Jungpaläolithikums zugegriffen, was zeigt, dass Gruppen von Menschen über Generationen hinweg Wissen austauschten und bestimmten Quellen von Ressourcen auch in einem sich stark verändernden Umfeld und Klima treu blieben. Der letzte Aspekt der dritten Stufe umfasste die Einbeziehung von Ocker- und Rötelartefakten aus den nahe gelegenen Höhlenstandorten Geißenklösterle und Vogelherd, um zu untersuchen, ob sich die Nutzung von Ocker innerhalb der verschiedenen Höhlenstationen veränderte . Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Menschen tatsächlich auf dieselben Ockerquellen zurückgriffen; manche Ockersorten aber traten in bestimmten Gruppen exklusiv auf, wie dies bei einigen Ockersorten von Hohle Fels und Geißenklösterle der Fall ist. Die archäologischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Daten zu den Mineralische Pigmente sowie die Umwelt- und Klimadaten zeigen, dass sich die Menschen bei Bedarf anpassten und ihr Verhalten im Laufe der Zeit beibehielten. Insgesamt ermöglichte die Kombination all dieser Methoden und Techniken neue und einzigartige Einblicke in die Art und Weise, wie Menschen miteinander kommunizierten, mit ihrer Landschaft interagierten und auf welche Weise Ocker und Rötel einen Teil ihres Lebens im gesamten Jungpaläolithikum bildeten

First large-scale provenance study of pigments reveals new complex behavioural patterns during the Upper Palaeolithic of southwestern Germany

The use of red iron‐based earth pigments, or ochre, is a key component of early symbolic behaviours for anatomically modern humans and possibly Neanderthals. We present the first ochre provenance study in Central Europe showing long‐term selection strategies by inhabitants of cave sites in south‐western Germany during the Upper Palaeolithic (43–14.5 ka). Ochre artefacts from Hohle Fels, Geißenklösterle and Vogelherd, and local and extra‐local sources, were investigated using neutron activation analysis (NAA), X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results show that local ochre sources were continuously and systematically accessed for c.29 500 years, with periodic events of long‐distance (about > 300 km) ochre acquisition during the Aurignacian (c.35–43 ka), suggesting higher mobility than previously suspected. The results reveal previously unknown long‐term, complex spatio‐temporal behavioural patterns during the earliest presence of Homo sapiens in Europe.publishedVersio

The Forgotten Kingdom.: New investigations in the prehistory of Eswatini

The kingdom of Eswatini provides a rich archaeological sequence covering all time periods from the Early Stone Age to the Iron Age. For over 27 years though, no or very little archaeological research was conducted in the country. In the scope of a new project funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) we aim to re-excavate and re-date Lion Cavern, the potentially oldest ochre mine in the world. In addition, we conduct a largescale geological survey for outcrops of ochre and test their geochemical signatures for comparative studies with archaeological ochre pieces from MSA and LSA assemblages in Eswatini. Here we present a review of the research history of the kingdom and some preliminary results from our ongoing project

Pilot fires: Preliminary Report from Interdisciplinary Actualistic Fire Experiments

Hearth formation processes are complex. They involve multiple actions, reactions, and activities before, during, and after an active fire and can also impact a wide range of materials and sediments at an archaeological site. Archaeologists approach combustion features and formation processes from multiple analytical perspectives. However, many experimental studies are limited to a strict analytical focus on a single or very few fire-related aspects to allow for careful control of specific variables. Six researchers report here on a multi-focus experimental approach in order to understand complex fire practices and heat-induced alteration of micromammals, ostrich eggshell fragments, mineral pigments, shellfish, and sediments. We designed and conducted five experiments with a state-of-the-art 3D documentation setup, active fires, and excavation through photogrammetry and spatial recording. We provide a brief general account of the experiments and an overview of the experimental design before comparing single-focus and multifaceted experiments and pointing to some of the benefits of our approach and potential areas for improvement. Multifaceted experiments are complex and resource-demanding, and proto-experiments should ideally be part of the experimental design. Our 3D recording and collaboration on documentation strategies provided a wide range of data that can further our understanding of prehistoric combustion features.publishedVersio

PXRF and Place Names: Painting a Narrative on Squamish Ochre Sources and Rock Art

There are two major known sources of red ochre in the Squamish Valley, BC, and utilized in the creation of several rock art sites. These sources vary in that one is an easily accessible along Pilchuck Creek; the other, located 1660m above sea level on Paul Ridge. This source is considerably more difficult to access and likely imbued with greater ritual significance. Both ochre sources are associated with Squamish Nation place-names. In addition to the ochre sources, five pictograph sites contain depictions intimately related to Squamish oral history. The aim of this thesis is to first geochemically analyze ochre sources in the Squamish region and other locations from within and outside of British Columbia, and second to analyze the pigments in the Squamish Nation pictographs using portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF). These elemental analyses are compared to determine if pXRF can satisfy the provenance postulate for ochres, which states that inter-source variation must outweigh intra-source variation (Wiegand et al. 1977). The analyses on the pictographs provided qualitative and quantitative information on the elemental make-up of the pigments, and contributed towards establishing a methodology for analyzing pictographs with pXRF. Comparing this data determined if the ochre pigments used to create the pictographs came from geologically distinct sources based on signature elements, and if the rock art sites were re-visited and re-painted. Formal methods coupled with informed perspectives on the ochre and rock art uses information from oral history, place names, ethnographies and archaeology. The total summation of the data provides insight into the cultural background on the acquisition of ochres for pigments, and what geochemical complexities in minerals can reveal about the nature of ochre selection and the creation of pictographs in Squamish Nation territory

Ochre and pigment use at Hohle Fels cave: Results of the first systematic review of ochre and ochre-related artefacts from the Upper Palaeolithic in Germany.

Though many European Upper Palaeolithic sites document early examples of symbolic material expressions (e.g., cave art, personal ornaments, figurines), there exist few reports on the use of earth pigments outside of cave art-and occasionally Neanderthal-contexts. Here, we present the first in-depth study of the diachronic changes in ochre use throughout an entire Upper Palaeolithic sequence at Hohle Fels cave, Germany, spanning from ca. 44,000-14,500 cal. yr. BP. A reassessment of the assemblage has yielded 869 individual ochre artefacts, of which 27 show traces of anthropogenic modification. The ochre artefacts are from all Upper Palaeolithic layers, stemming from the earliest Aurignacian horizons to the Holocene. This wide temporal spread demonstrates the long-term presence and continuity of ochre use in a part of Europe where it has not been systematically reported before. The anthropogenic modifications present on the ochre artefacts from the Gravettian and Magdalenian are consistent with pigment powder production, whereas the only modified piece from the Aurignacian displays a possible engraved motif. The non-modified artefacts show that more hematite-rich specular ochres as well as fine-grained deep red iron oxide clays were preferred during the Gravettian and Magdalenian, while the Aurignacian layers contain a broader array of colours and textures. Furthermore, numerous other artefacts such as faunal elements, personal ornaments, shells, and an ochre grindstone further strengthen the conclusion that ochre behaviours were well established during the onset of the Aurignacian and subsequently flourished throughout the Upper Palaeolithic at Hohle Fels cave

First large-scale provenance study of pigments reveals new complex behavioural patterns during the Upper Palaeolithic of southwestern Germany

The use of red iron‐based earth pigments, or ochre, is a key component of early symbolic behaviours for anatomically modern humans and possibly Neanderthals. We present the first ochre provenance study in Central Europe showing long‐term selection strategies by inhabitants of cave sites in south‐western Germany during the Upper Palaeolithic (43–14.5 ka). Ochre artefacts from Hohle Fels, Geißenklösterle and Vogelherd, and local and extra‐local sources, were investigated using neutron activation analysis (NAA), X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results show that local ochre sources were continuously and systematically accessed for c.29 500 years, with periodic events of long‐distance (about > 300 km) ochre acquisition during the Aurignacian (c.35–43 ka), suggesting higher mobility than previously suspected. The results reveal previously unknown long‐term, complex spatio‐temporal behavioural patterns during the earliest presence of Homo sapiens in Europe

Honing Tools of the Mind: A Dynamic Framework for the Study of Symbolic Behavior in Early Human Evolution

The emergence of symbolic behavior is often considered a hallmark development in hominin evolution, ultimately giving rise to the complex communicative practices, abstract reasoning patterns, aesthetic discourses and religious institutions surrounding us today. In recent years, archaeologists have provided substantial evidence for the remarkable time-depth of symbolic artifact utilization and have made groundbreaking methodological advances (e.g, with respect to dating techniques, microscopy and 3d modeling). However, a systematic and rigorous framework for the investigation of the symbolic function of past artifacts is still lacking, that is, what kind of purpose these tools may have served and what kind of symbolic work they were designed or co- opted to do. This paper responds to this lacuna and outlines a new conceptual framework for the investigation of early symbolic artifacts. Symbolic artifacts are special in the sense of being mind- directed as they do their work primarily in the social and cognitive domain. That is, they support their function only to the extent that their structural properties affect relevant cognitive processes related to symbolic cognition (including e.g., attention, memory, and discrimination). To inform our understanding of past symbolic behavior, we therefore introduce the concept of cognitive affordances, defined as the capacity of symbolic forms to support such relevant cognitive processes. The cognitive affordances constitute a mediating layer of analysis between the observable, structural traits of symbolic artifacts and their hypothesized role in past social and pragmatic behaviors of hominins, related to, for instance, aesthetic, communicative, or ritual/cosmological practices. We show that by studying the cognitive implications of variation and change in the structural properties of symbolic artifacts recovered from the archaeological record, we can inform inferences and test new hypotheses about what pragmatic functions they may have served in past Paleolithic society

Early anthropogenic use of hematite on Aurignacian ivory personal ornaments from Hohle Fels and Vogelherd caves, Germany

The Aurignacian (ca. 43–35 ka) of southwestern Germany is well known for yielding some of the oldest artifacts related to symbolic behaviors, including examples of figurative art, musical instruments, and personal ornaments. Another aspect of these behaviors is the presence of numerous pieces of iron oxide (ocher); however, these are comparatively understudied, likely owing to the lack of painted artifacts from this region and time period. Several Aurignacian-aged carved ivory personal ornaments from the sites of Hohle Fels and Vogelherd contain traces of what appear to be red ocher residues. We analyzed these beads using a combination of macroanalytical and microanalytical methods, including scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy. We found that the residue is composed of the iron oxide mineral hematite (Fe2O3). Further analyses on associated archaeological sediments by X-ray diffraction revealed the absence of hematite and other iron oxide mineral phases, suggesting that the hematite residues were intentionally applied to the ivory personal ornaments by human agents. These findings have important implications as they represent evidence for the direct application of ocher on portable symbolic objects by early Homo sapiens in Europe. Furthermore, our results reveal shared behavioral practices from two key Aurignacian sites maintained over several millennia and illuminate aspects of pigment use and symbolic practices during a pivotal time in the cultural evolution of humans