Crossing the bridge to elementary school : The development of children's working memory components in relation to teacher-student relationships and academic achievement

Working memory is important for a variety of life domains,. including for children's school functioning. As such, it is crucial to understand its development, antecedents and consequences. The current study investigates the development of different working memory components (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive), the influence of different aspects of the teacher-student relationship (closeness, conflict, dependency) and its predictive value for academic achievement (reading, spelling, mathematics) across the transition from kindergarten to first grade. The sample consisted of 107 kindergarten children. Working memory tasks were administered at the end of kindergarten and first grade. Teachers reported on teacher-student relationship quality in the middle of first grade. Standardized tests were used to assess academic achievement at the end of first grade. Results indicate moderate to large increases in the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad and large gains in the central executive. Dependency of the student towards the teacher significantly predicted visuospatial sketchpad performance at the end of first grade. Reading was significantly predicted by the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop in kindergarten, while for spelling the visuospatial sketchpad was important. Finally, mathematics was predicted by performance on the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. The current study indicates the importance of the affective quality of the teacher-student relationship for working memory performance, which in turn is important for academic achievement. It is therefore critical to attend to the early detection and prevention or intervention of working memory problems in the classroom in order to prevent future academic problems. Additionally, maintaining a positive relationship with students and encouraging their independent exploration may be important when preventing such problems, complementary to cognitive or other types of training and intervention.Peer reviewe

The development of executive functioning at the transition from kindergarten to elementary school. The role of the home and school context and its importance for academic functioning.

Executive functioning (EF) refers to a set of cognitive functions used to control our behavior, cognition and emotions. It is a complex concept consisting of three core EFs, working memory, inhibition and cognitive flexibility, which are in itself multi-dimensional constructs that can be broken down into subcomponents. Well-developed EFs are essential for school functioning, especially at times of school transition (e.g., from kindergarten to elementary school), when higher demands are placed on children’s EFs. Unfortunately, studies examining EF-development and its importance for school functioning at the moment of this transition are limited and rarely distinguish (all) different EF-subcomponents. Moreover, although it is generally acknowledged that EF-development can be influenced, research on the importance of the environment, and especially the school context, is still scarce. As a consequence current knowledge is insufficiently refined to guide prevention and intervention of EF- and school difficulties. The current research project will investigate (1) the development of specific EF-subcomponents across the transition to elementary school, (2) the impact of school context factors (i.e., teacher-student interaction) on this development, and (3) the predictive nature of EF-subcomponents on school functioning after this transition. Methodologically, a longitudinal design is complemented with an experimental study to gain insights in long- and short term relationships and underlying mechanisms. Findings can nuance our existing insights on EF and increase understanding in underlying mechanisms.status: publishe

The role of the teacher-student relationship in the development of the subcomponents of executive functioning across the transition to first grade

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The development of executive functioning across the transition to first grade and its predictive value for academic achievement

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd Executive functions (EFs), used to guide goal-directed behavior, are essential for adequate classroom functioning. The current study aims to, (1) examine development and stability of three core EFs (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility) across the transition to first grade; and (2) investigate the relationship of EFs with academic achievement, taking into account their multidimensionality and interconnections. EF tasks were administered at the end of kindergarten and first grade (n = 89) and standardized achievement tests at the end of first grade. Results indicate moderate to large growth and stability in working memory and cognitive flexibility and small improvements and stability in inhibition. Working memory predicted academic achievement, cognitive flexibility had a limited role and no additional contribution of inhibition was found. The current study suggests that the transitional period to first grade can be an important period to promote EF development, which in turn can support the prevention of later school problems.status: publishe

The effects of peer rejection, parent and teacher support on working memory performance: An experimental approach in middle childhood

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. Working memory performance, important for children's learning, can be influenced by social interactions. The current study investigates whether parent and teacher support buffer the negative effect of peer rejection on working memory performance, using an experimental approach. Children from third to sixth grade (aged 8–14; n = 412) filled out questionnaires and completed an experiment. Working memory performance (Corsi Task Backwards) was measured at the beginning of the experiment. Next, peer rejection was manipulated (Cyberball Task), followed by a manipulation of parent and teacher support (audio message) and a posttest measure of working memory. There was no main effect of peer rejection and parent or teacher support. Social acceptance did moderate the buffering effect of teacher support for working memory performance. Teachers should be aware of the role of their relational support for children's cognition and learning.status: publishe

Longitudinal associations between objectively measured physical activity and development of executive functioning across the transition to first grade

BACKGROUND: The current study investigates how children's amount of daily physical activity relates to subcomponents of executive functions, the cognitive processes needed for goal-directed behavior. Previous studies rarely determined this association at the subcomponent level and did not explicitly examine the period when children make the transition to first grade, despite its importance for the development of executive functions. METHODS: In a sample of 54 children, working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility were thoroughly measured at the subcomponent level at the end of kindergarten and first grade. In the middle of first grade, children wore a pedometer for 7 consecutive days. RESULTS: Regression analyses showed that performance on a measure of the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and fluency was predicted by children's amount of daily physical activity after controlling for initial task performance. CONCLUSIONS: The development of the visuospatial sketchpad (working memory), the central executive (working memory), and fluency (cognitive flexibility) might be improved by increasing the amount of time being physically active. However, as other subcomponents of executive functioning were not affected, the role of other aspects of physical activity, such as intensity and content, in the development of executive functions should be further investigated.status: publishe

The classroom as a developmental context for cognitive development: a meta-analysis on the importance of teacher-student interactions for children's executive functions

© 2017 AERA. Executive functions (EFs), important cognitive processes that enable goal-directed behavior, develop due to maturation and environmental stimulation. The current study systematically reviews and synthesizes evidence on the association between teacher–student interactions and EFs. The search resulted in 28 studies, from which 23 studies provided sufficient data to be included in the calculations. Overall effect sizes indicate that teacher–child interactions are related to general executive functioning, working memory, and inhibition but not cognitive flexibility. Relationships were stronger for studies including children at the beginning of elementary school, studies with higher socioeconomic status participants and more boys, and studies measuring teacher–child interactions at the dyadic level. This study shows that qualitative teacher–child interactions are important for performance in EFs in children. This suggests that teachers can promote the cognitive processes that are essential in children’s learning by changing their behavior to create an emotionally positive, structured, and cognitively stimulating classroom environment.status: publishe

Heterogeneity in cognitive and socio-emotional functioning in adolescents with on-track and delayed school progression

Adolescence is characterized by considerable changes in cognitive and socio-emotional skills. There are considerable differences between adolescents with regards to the development of these skills. However, most studies examine adolescents' average functioning, without taking into account this heterogeneity. The current study applies network analysis in order to examine heterogeneity of cognitive and socio-emotional functioning in adolescents on-track or delayed in their school progression. Data was collected at two time-points for on-track (n = 320) and delayed (n = 69) adolescents (Mage = 13.30 years, SDage = 0.77). Repeated measures ANOVA showed no significant differences between the groups in cognitive and socio-emotional functioning (p's > 0.05). Network analysis revealed that executive functions play a key role in the network of cognitive, social, and emotional functioning. This is especially the case in the delayed group where executive functions are even more central, both at T1 (inhibition and shifting) and T2 (shifting). Subsequent community analysis revealed three profiles in both groups: a well-adapted and well-balanced group, a group with high levels of need for arousal and risk-taking, and a group with regulation problems. Compared to on-track adolescents, delayed adolescents showed even higher levels of risk-taking in the second profile and higher levels of executive function problems in the third profile at T1. These differences were leveled out at T2, indicating adolescents in the delayed group catch up with their peers. This study highlights the intricate balance between cognitive, social and emotional functioning in adolescents in relation to school performance and provides preliminary evidence of the importance of taking individual differences within groups into account.status: Published onlin

Family demographic profiles and their relationship with the quality of executive functioning subcomponents in kindergarten

Executive functioning (EF), needed for goal-oriented behaviour, thoughts, and emotions, is important for various life domains. This study examined the relationship between family demographics and EF subcomponents. A kindergarten sample was tested on subcomponents of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Parents provided information on demographic variables. For 78 children both EF and demographic data were available. First, demographic profiles were identified within the sample. Two profiles were found: A low-risk profile of mainly two-biological-parent, high-income families with a highly educated mother who did not smoke during pregnancy and a high-risk profile of low-income families with a young, low-educated mother who more often smoked during pregnancy. Second, children with different demographic profiles were compared on EF subcomponents. Results indicate differential relations between family demographics and EF subcomponents: Whereas for most EF subcomponents no association with family demographics was found, high-risk children performed better on response shifting and tended to perform worse on verbal memory than low-risk children. Parenting stress decreased performance only for high-risk children. Although this study found limited impact of family demographics for EF, further longitudinal research can provide nuanced insights about which factors influence specific EF subcomponents during which developmental periods and guide targeted prevention of EF difficulties

Family demographic profiles and their relationship with the quality of executive functioning subcomponents in kindergarten

Executive functioning (EF), needed for goal-oriented behaviour, thoughts, and emotions, is important for various life domains. This study examined the relationship between family demographics and EF subcomponents. A kindergarten sample was tested on subcomponents of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Parents provided information on demographic variables. For 78 children both EF and demographic data were available. First, demographic profiles were identified within the sample. Two profiles were found: A low-risk profile of mainly two-biological-parent, high-income families with a highly educated mother who did not smoke during pregnancy and a high-risk profile of low-income families with a young, low-educated mother who more often smoked during pregnancy. Second, children with different demographic profiles were compared on EF subcomponents. Results indicate differential relations between family demographics and EF subcomponents: Whereas for most EF subcomponents no association with family demographics was found, high-risk children performed better on response shifting and tended to perform worse on verbal memory than low-risk children. Parenting stress decreased performance only for high-risk children. Although this study found limited impact of family demographics for EF, further longitudinal research can provide nuanced insights about which factors influence specific EF subcomponents during which developmental periods and guide targeted prevention of EF difficulties.status: publishe