From Paper to Carbon Money: Financing Forest Conservation and Offset

As a result of the 21st Conference of the Parties (CoP-21) in 2015, the Paris Agreement formally recognised the importance of finance and forests to tackle climate change. However, Article 9 of the convention calls for the leadership of developed countries in mobilising climate finance, while encouraging other parties to provide financial support voluntarily. This is rather an unstable mechanism, since it is strongly affected by political and economic hardships. Forest finance could be established instead that, just like capital markets, might allow for countries to choose between interest-bearing bonds from forest conservation (natural forests) and/or offset (forest plantations). Bonds demand comes out of carbon savings from forest conservation or offsetting forests, whereas bonds supply arises from investments giving off carbon emissions that must be avoided through forest conservation or offset through forest plantations. A Loanable-Forest Funds (LFF) model is developed which shows that forest conservation scenarios require lower rates of interest on forest bonds than forest offsetting ones. Then, unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which emphasises forest offset (forestry-CDM), the formal inclusion of forest conservation (REDD+) in the Paris Agreement might lower the real rates of return to long-term forest investments

Análise multivariada e o diagnóstico da dinâmica de desenvolvimento dos municípios da Quarta Colônia do RS(1990-2000)

At least since the decade of 1960, economists and social scientists in general have concentrated efforts to find macro-indicadores to inform them, with the greater realism as possible, as a city, region or country has developed. In this sense, dimensions had not been slighted by the indicators traditional macroeconomics — like certain social and environmental variables — became, above all, from the 1980, which were effectively included in the measure of economic development. However, since this concept more qualitatively replaced the purely quantitative notion of economic growth, a series of theoretical and practical controversies took place. Mainly because the weighting of the component variables of any development index it invariably consists of an arbitrary, therefore subjective process. Conversely, the present study applies the techniques of multivariate analysis to, instead, find, from sample objective data, the actual weights of the component variables of the development indices calculated over a decade ( 1990-2000) for the municipalities of the region of the fourth colony of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The variables used consist of the relative value (percentage) to the total municipal expenditure per year of 15 headings through which this expenditure is allocated. The choice of expense and non-revenue items is due to that in the which concerns the municipal public budget in Brazil, in particular the sources of revenue are very limited (basically reduced to two taxes), while the that the application (destination) of the resources, which constitutes expenditure, informs better about the planning profile. The results reveal not only the standard of regional development in each period and throughout the decade, as well as allow you to identify the dynamic variables of this process. From that diagnosis, then it is possible to indicate the direction and direction of local development and regional, without incurring the common error to many planners of definition of the weighting criteria.Pelo menos desde a década de 1960, economistas e cientistas sociais em geral têm concentrado esforços para encontrar macro-indicadores que lhes informem, com o maior realismo possível, quanto uma cidade, região ou país tem-se desenvolvido. Nesse sentido, dimensões até havia pouco menosprezadas pelos indicadores macroeconômicos tradicionais — como certas variáveis sociais e ambientais —passaram a ser, sobretudo a partir da década de 1980, efetivamente incluídas na medida do desenvolvimento econômico. No entanto, desde que esse conceito maisqualitativo substituiu a noção meramente quantitativa de crescimento econômico, uma série de controvérsias teóricas e práticas teve lugar. Principalmente porque aponderação das variáveis componentes de qualquer índice de desenvolvimento consiste, invariavelmente, num processo arbitrário, portanto subjetivo. Diversamente, o presente estudo aplica as técnicas de análise multivariada para, ao invés, encontrar, a partir de dados amostrais objetivos, as ponderações reais das variáveis componentes dos índices de desenvolvimento calculados ao longo de uma década (1990-2000) para os municípios da região da Quarta Colônia do estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. As variáveis utilizadas consistem no valor relativo (percentual) à despesa municipal total por ano de 15 rubricas através das quais essa despesa é alocada. A escolha de itens de despesa e não de receita deve-se a que, no que diz respeito ao orçamento público municipal no Brasil, em particular, as fontes de receita são bastante limitadas (reduzem-se basicamente a dois impostos), ao passo que a aplicação (destinação) dos recursos, que constitui as despesas, informa melhor sobre o perfil do planejamento. Os resultados revelam não só o padrão dedesenvolvimento regional em cada período e ao longo da década, como também permitem identificar as variáveis dinâmicas desse processo. A partir desse diagnóstico, então, é possível indicar a direção e o sentido do desenvolvimento locale regional, sem se incorrer no erro comum a muitos planejadores da definição a priori dos critérios de ponderação

Bioeconomic analysis of carbon forest sequestration and of the ecological debt: an application to the case of Rio Grande do Sul

Apesar das cr\uedticas, o Protocolo de Kyoto se tem constitu\ueddo na principal ferramenta pol\uedtica para enfrentar a mudan\ue7a clim\ue1tica. No entanto, o \ufanico de seus instrumentos que prev\uea a coopera\ue7\ue3o entre pa\uedses industrializados e em desenvolvimento para mitigar as emiss\uf5es de gases-estufa \ue9 o MDL (Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo). A modalidade florestal do MDL pressup\uf5e que as planta\ue7\uf5es florestais (florestamento/reflorestamento) podem ajudar na remo\ue7\ue3o das emiss\uf5es de di\uf3xido de carbono (o g\ue1s-estufa mais representativo) e compensar a perda de florestas naturais. Este estudo se concentra, ent\ue3o, nesse proclamado trade-off. Uma an\ue1lise bioecon\uf4mica, da qual se abstraem vari\ue1veis monet\ue1rias, \ue9 empregada para avaliar o seq\ufcestro florestal de carbono no Rio Grande do Sul. A \ue1rea florestal do Estado \ue9 repartida somente entre florestas nativas e plantadas. Se, de um lado, isso n\ue3o permite analisar o desmatamento, de outro, esse fen\uf4meno \ue9 desprez\uedvel no Estado. A reparti\ue7\ue3o do solo \ue9 expressa por uma fun\ue7\ue3o que reflete a demanda por remo\ue7\ue3o de emiss\uf5es. Sua contraparte \ue9 a fun\ue7\ue3o oferta de emiss\uf5es que depende das taxas de crescimento econ\uf4mico. Os resultados mostram como, em \ufaltima an\ue1lise, a sustenta\ue7\ue3o do crescimento econ\uf4mico est\ue1 condicionada \ue0 situa\ue7\ue3o ecol\uf3gica (d\uedvida, cr\ue9dito ou equil\uedbrio) de um pa\ueds ou regi\ue3o. Em cada cen\ue1rio, confrontam-se as vantagens econ\uf4micas e ambientais das estrat\ue9gias do MDL e da conserva\ue7\ue3o de florestas naturais. No final, estima-se uma taxa de overshoot para a atividade florestal no Rio Grande do Sul ao longo dos \ufaltimos 40 anos aproximadamente. As estimativas sugerem que o MDL pode aliviar press\uf5es ambientais somente onde se registre cr\ue9dito ecol\uf3gico, onde o endividamento ecol\uf3gico j\ue1 esteja em curso, o MDL n\ue3o substitui a conserva\ue7\ue3o das florestas nativas.Though heavily criticized, the Kyoto Protocol has stood out as the key political tool in addressing climate change. However, one of the few instruments that allows industrialized and developing countries to cooperate towards mitigation of GHGs is CDM (Clean Development Mechanism). The underlying assumption of forestry CDM is that forest plantations (afforestation/ reforestation) might help remove carbon dioxide (the most representative GHG) emissions and compensate for the loss of natural forests. Therefore, this study focuses on this alleged trade-off. A bioeconomic analysis, which abstracts out money variables, is applied to assess carbon forest sequestration in Rio Grande do Sul. The state's forest area is split up into natural and planted forests only. On one hand, this does not allow to check out for deforestation; on the other hand, such a phenomenon is not remarkable in Rio Grande do Sul. The land use is taken into account by a function that works as the emission removal demand. On the other hand, the emission supply function depends on the economic growth rates. The results show that, eventually, the sustainability of economic growth hinges on a region's or country's ecological situation \u2013 namely, equilibrium, credit or debt. The economic and environmental advantages of each mitigation strategy \u2013 CDM and natural forest conservation \u2013 are crosschecked. A nearly 40-year-long overshoot rate is, after all, estimated for the forest sector in Rio Grande do Sul. The estimates suggest that CDM might help to relieve environmental stress only where ecological credit is reported. Where ecological debt is already on, CDM was found unable to compensate for conservation disregard

Análise bioeconômica do seqüestro florestal de carbono e da dívida ecológica: uma aplicação ao caso do Rio Grande do Sul.

Though heavily criticized, the Kyoto Protocol has stood out as the key political tool in addressing climate change. However, one of the few instruments that allows industrialized and developing countries to cooperate towards mitigation of GHGs is CDM (Clean Development Mechanism). The underlying assumption of forestry CDM is that forest plantations (afforestation/ reforestation) might help remove carbon dioxide (the most representative GHG) emissions and compensate for the loss of natural forests. Therefore, this study focuses on this alleged trade-off. A bioeconomic analysis, which abstracts out money variables, is applied to assess carbon forest sequestration in Rio Grande do Sul. The state’s forest area is split up into natural and planted forests only. On one hand, this does not allow to check out for deforestation; on the other hand, such a phenomenon is not remarkable in Rio Grande do Sul. The land use is taken into account by a function that works as the emission removal demand. On the other hand, the emission supply function depends on the economic growth rates. The results show that, eventually, the sustainability of economic growth hinges on a region’s or country’s ecological situation – namely, equilibrium, credit or debt. The economic and environmental advantages of each mitigation strategy – CDM and natural forest conservation – are crosschecked. A nearly 40-year-long overshoot rate is, after all, estimated for the forest sector in Rio Grande do Sul. The estimates suggest that CDM might help to relieve environmental stress only where ecological credit is reported. Where ecological debt is already on, CDM was found unable to compensate for conservation disregard.Apesar das críticas, o Protocolo de Kyoto se tem constituído na principal ferramenta política para enfrentar a mudança climática. No entanto, o único de seus instrumentos que prevê a cooperação entre países industrializados e em desenvolvimento para mitigar as emissões de gases-estufa é o MDL (Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo). A modalidade florestal do MDL pressupõe que as plantações florestais (florestamento/reflorestamento) podem ajudar na remoção das emissões de dióxido de carbono (o gás-estufa mais representativo) e compensar a perda de florestas naturais. Este estudo se concentra, então, nesse proclamado trade-off. Uma análise bioeconômica, da qual se abstraem variáveis monetárias, é empregada para avaliar o seqüestro florestal de carbono no Rio Grande do Sul. A área florestal do Estado é repartida somente entre florestas nativas e plantadas. Se, de um lado, isso não permite analisar o desmatamento, de outro, esse fenômeno é desprezível no Estado. A repartição do solo é expressa por uma função que reflete a demanda por remoção de emissões. Sua contraparte é a função oferta de emissões que depende das taxas de crescimento econômico. Os resultados mostram como, em última análise, a sustentação do crescimento econômico está condicionada  à situação ecológica (dívida, crédito ou  equilíbrio) de um país ou região. Em cada cenário, confrontam-se as vantagens econômicas e ambientais das estratégias do MDL e da conservação de florestas naturais. No final, estima-se uma taxa de overshoot para a atividade florestal no Rio Grande do Sul ao longo dos últimos 40 anos aproximadamente. As estimativas sugerem que o MDL pode aliviar pressões ambientais somente onde se registre crédito ecológico, onde o endividamento ecológico já esteja em curso, o MDL não substitui a conservação das florestas nativas

Os Efeitos de encadeamentos na bioeconomia e na economia de baixo carbono do Brasil

O objetivo desse trabalho é demonstrar como a hipótese dos encadeamentos (linkages) em um modelo ampliado de insumo-produto pode ser utilizada como critério para avaliar as diretrizes bioeconômicas. Com essa finalidade, utilizam-se dados para o Brasil em 2018. Assim, quando indistintamente se consideram todos os recursos energéticos, o setor de Transportes é o mais dependente, e os Derivados de Petróleo são os insumos mais demandados pela economia. Os resultados mudam quando a ênfase recai sobre as bioenergias. Nesse caso, o setor de Papel e Celulose é o mais dependente, e a Lixívia torna-se o insumo mais consumido. Conclui-se que tais alterações afetam tanto o direcionamento dos investimentos quanto a estratégia de desenvolvimento a ser utilizada. Por exemplo, a redução do uso de combustíveis fósseis prejudicaria investimentos no setor de Transportes, ao passo que a adoção da estratégia bioeconômica de desenvolvimento favoreceria o setor de Papel e Celulose.El objetivo de este trabajo es demostrar cómo la hipótesis de encadenamientos en un modelo insumo-producto expandido puede ser utilizada como criterio para evaluar lineamientos bioeconómicos. Para ello se utilizan datos de Brasil en 2018. Así, cuando se consideran indistintamente todos los recursos energéticos, el sector Transporte es el más dependiente, y los Derivados del Petróleo son los insumos más demandados por la economía. Los resultados cambian cuando el énfasis está en las bioenergías. En este caso, el sector de Celulosa y Papel es el más dependiente, y la Lejía se convierte en el insumo más consumido. Se concluye que tales cambios afectan tanto la dirección de las inversiones como la estrategia de desarrollo a utilizar. Por ejemplo, reducir el uso de combustibles fósiles perjudicaría las inversiones en el sector Transporte, mientras que la adopción de una estrategia de desarrollo bioeconómico favorecería al sector de Celulosa y Papel.The goal of this study is to demonstrate how the linkage hypothesis in an augmented input-outputmodel can be used as a criterion to evaluate bioeconomic guidelines. To this end, data for 2018 inBrazil are used. Hence, when all the country's energy inputs are considered indistinctively, theTransport sector is the most dependent one, while Petroleum and Oil Products are the most demandedinputs across the economy. The results change when the emphasis is placed upon bioenergy inputs. In this case, the Paper and Pulp sector is the most dependent one, while Black Liquor turns out to be themost widely consumed input. It can be concluded that such changes drive both the investments and the development strategy to be designed. For instance, reducing the use of fossil fuels would harminvestments in the Transport sector, while adoption of a bioeconomic strategy would favor the Paperand Pulp sector

Tamoxifen in the mouse brain: Implications for fate-mapping studies using the tamoxifen-inducible Cre-loxP system

The tamoxifen-inducible Cre-loxP system is widely used to overcome gene targeting pre-adult lethality, to modify a specific cell population at desired time-points, and to visualize and trace cells in fate-mapping studies. In this study we focused on tamoxifen degradation kinetics, because for all genetic fate-mapping studies, the period during which tamoxifen or its metabolites remain active in the CNS, is essential. Additionally, we aimed to define the tamoxifen administration scheme, enabling the maximal recombination rate together with minimal animal mortality. The time window between tamoxifen injection and the beginning of experiments should be large enough to allow complete degradation of tamoxifen and its metabolites. Otherwise, these substances could promote an undesired recombination, leading to data misinterpretation. We defined the optimal time window, allowing the complete degradation of tamoxifen and its metabolites, such as 4-hydroxytamoxifen, N-desmethyltamoxifen, endoxifen and norendoxifen, in the mouse brain after intraperitoneal tamoxifen injection. We determined the biological activity of these substances in vitro, as well as a minimal effective concentration of the most potent metabolite 4-hydroxytamoxifen causing recombination in vivo. For this purpose, we analyzed the recombination rate in double transgenic Cspg4-cre/Esr1/ROSA26Sortm14(CAG-tdTomato) mice, in which tamoxifen administration triggers the expression of red fluorescent protein in NG2-expressing cells, and employed a liquid chromatography, coupled with mass spectrometry, to determine the concentration of studied substances in the brain. We determined the degradation kinetics of these substances, and revealed that this process is influenced by mouse strains, age of animals, dosage, and disruption of the blood-brain barrier. Our results revealed that tamoxifen and its metabolites were completely degraded within 8 days in young adult C57BL/6J mice, while the age-matched FVB male mice displayed more effective degradation. Moreover, aged C57BL/6J mice were unable to metabolize all substances within 8 days. The lowering of initial tamoxifen dose leads to a significantly faster degradation of all studied substances. A disruption of the blood-brain barrier caused no concentration changes of any tamoxifen metabolites in the ipsilateral hemisphere. Taken together, we showed that tamoxifen metabolism in mouse brains is age-, strain- and dose-dependent, and these factors should be taken into account in the experimental design