Disentangling the role of different forms of contact: Effects on intergroup emotions, prejudice and outgroup humanization.

According to the Contact Hypothesis, positive encounters with outgroup members have the potential of reducing prejudice toward the whole outgroup (Allport, 1954). Research has widely demonstrated the effectiveness of contact in ameliorating intergroup relations across a variety of situations and cultural contexts (Brown & Hewstone, 2005; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006); research has further shown that positive contact reduces, besides blatant prejudice, also subtle and implicit forms of prejudice. Recent developments of the Contact Hypothesis investigated the mediators of the contact-reduced prejudice relationship. The recent meta-analysis by Pettigrew and Tropp (2008) underlined that affective mediators, such as reduced intergroup anxiety and increased empathy, have stronger effects than cognitive mediators, such as outgroup knowledge. In four correlational studies, we explored the relationship between different forms of contact and prejudice toward immigrants in Italy. Concerning the mediators of the relationship between contact and prejudice, we considered the affective mediators identified by Pettigrew and Tropp (2008): intergroup anxiety, namely the anticipation of negative psychological or behavioral consequences deriving from intergroup interactions (Stephan & Stephan, 1985), and emotional empathy, namely an other-oriented emotional response, congruent with the perception of her/his welfare (Batson et al., 1997). Besides empathy and anxiety, we considered a more recently proposed mediator, namely outgroup trust. Trust consists in positive expectations about intentions and behaviors of other persons or groups (Kramer & Carnevale, 2001), and is associated to positive attitudes and cooperative behaviors with outgroup members. As regards prejudice, we considered both explicit attitudes toward immigrants, and more indirect prejudice measures, i.e. subtle prejudice and a scale measuring the percentage of crimes in Italy attributed to immigrants. Recent theoretical approaches further studied a very subtle form of prejudice, that consists in attributing more secondary emotions and uniquely human traits to ingroup than to outgroup members (infrahumanization; Leyens, Demoulin, Vaes, Gaunt, & Paladino, 2007). Thus, we also considered humanity attributions to ingroup and outgroup members and hypothesized, consistently with empirical evidence (Brown, Eller, Leeds, & Stace, 2007; Capozza, Trifiletti, Vezzali, & Favara, 2012), that positive intergroup contact could increase the attribution of uniquely human characteristics to outgroup members. In the first study, 174 Italian participants completed a questionnaire including: measures of quantity of meaningful contact with immigrants (Voci & Hewstone, 2003); measures of attitude toward immigrants (Voci & Hewstone, 2003), subtle prejudice (adapted from Pettigrew & Meertens, 1995), attribution of uniquely human and non uniquely human traits to ingroup and outgroup members (Capozza, et al., 2012), estimate of the percentage of crimes in Italy committed by immigrants (Pagotto, Voci, & Maculan, 2010); as emotional processes, measures of intergroup anxiety (adapted from Stephan & Stephan, 1985), emotional empathy (based on Batson et al., 1997), and outgroup trust (Voci, 2006). We used Structural Equation Modelling with latent variables (Lisrel, Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2004) to test the effects of contact; in the model, quantity of contact was the predictor; empathy, anxiety, and trust were the mediators, and attitudes, prejudice, crimes rating, and uniquely human traits attributed to immigrants were the criterion variables. Contact with immigrants led, through reduced intergroup anxiety and increased empathy and trust, to the reduction of prejudice and crimes estimate, to the improvement of outgroup attitudes and to greater attribution of uniquely human traits to immigrants. The first study thus confirmed that meaningful direct contact with outgroup members reduced various forms of prejudice, through affective mediators. Anyway, direct contact with outgroup members is not always attainable and frequent; in highly segregated settings, indeed, people belonging to different groups may not have the chance to develop deep relationships with outgroup members; moreover, even when contact is possible, people may seek friendships among ingroup members, and not form cross-group friendships (see, e.g., Stearns, Buchmann, & Bonneau, 2009). In these situations, indirect forms of contact may have important effects on intergroup attitudes. Wright, Aron, McLaughlin-Volpe and Ropp (1997) proposed that extended contact, namely the knowledge that an ingroup member has an outgroup friend, may reduce prejudice toward the whole outgroup. Experimental and correlational studies demonstrated that extended contact is effective for prejudice reduction toward various outgroups, and has significant effects controlling for direct contact (Turner, Hewstone, Voci, Paolini, & Christ, 2007). Research has also shown that observing cross-group interactions through mass media may affect prejudice and intergroup relationships. Mutz and Goldman (2010), in their review of the effects of exposure to mass media on prejudice, underlined that mass media are the main source of information about outgroups. In Study 2, thus, we investigated, besides direct contact effects, also the effects of extended contact with immigrants and of contact through mass media. Concerning contact through mass media, we chose to consider separately contact through TV news and newspapers and contact through movies and TV series. In the second study, 201 Italian participants completed a questionnaire containing, besides measures included in the questionnaire of Study 1, measures of extended contact (Wright et al., 1997; Turner, Hewstone, Voci, & Vonofakou, 2008), contact through TV news and newspapers, and contact through movies and TV series. We tested a regression model with latent variables; predictors were quantity of the four forms of contact (direct contact, extended contact, contact through TV news and newspapers, contact through movies and TV series); mediators and outcome variables were the same of the model tested in Study 1. Confirming results of Study 1, direct contact ameliorated attitudes, enhanced the attribution of uniquely human traits to immigrants, and reduced prejudice and crimes estimate, through the reduction of intergroup anxiety and the increase of empathy and trust. Extended contact ameliorated outgroup attitudes and reduced prejudice through outgroup trust. Contact through TV news and newspapers instead increased all forms of prejudice, partially via increased intergroup anxiety. Finally, contact through movies and TV series had a positive direct effect on the attribution of uniquely human traits to immigrants. Thus, Study 2 showed that direct contact, extended contact, and contact through movies and TV series were related to lower prejudice, while contact through TV news and newspapers increased prejudice. Recent meta-analysis and theorizations on intergroup contact (Pettigrew, 2008; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006) underlined the lack of research on the negative episodes of contact, and on comparing the effects of positive and negative contact. Indeed, in most of the published studies, contact measures concerned quantity and quality of contact, and quantity of cross-group friendships; through these procedures, it would not be possible to analyze the role of contact episodes perceived as positive or negative. In the third study, thus, we considered the distinction between positive and negative episodes of the contact forms analyzed in Study 2. Participants were 330 Italian adults and students, who completed a questionnaire containing, besides the prejudice and emotions measures included in the questionnaires of the previous studies, measures of quantity of positive and negative episodes of direct contact with immigrants, quantity of positive and negative episodes of extended contact with immigrants, quantity of positive and negative episodes of contact through TV news and newspapers, quantity of positive and negative episodes of contact through movies and TV series. Preliminary analyses showed that positive direct contact episodes were more frequent than negative ones; we found the same pattern for extended contact and contact through movies and TV series, while negative episodes of contact through TV news and newspapers were far more frequent than positive ones. We tested a regression model with latent variables, where predictors were quantity of positive and negative episodes of the above mentioned forms of contact (eight predictors); mediators were intergroup anxiety, trust, and empathy; the outcome variables were attitudes, subtle prejudice, crimes rating, and uniquely human traits attributed to immigrants. The contact forms which were most influent on prejudice reduction were positive direct contact and positive extended contact; they decreased all the forms of prejudice, and the mediation involved the three emotions (reduced intergroup anxiety, increased empathy and trust). Also contact through TV news and newspapers was very influential: positive contact through TV news and newspapers ameliorated attitudes and increased outgroup humanization, while the negative episodes were related to stronger prejudice, influencing all the outcome measures. It is noteworthy that positive direct contact was related to reduced prejudice more than negative direct contact was related to increased prejudice; the same pattern emerged for extended contact and for contact through movies and TV series, while negative contact through TV news and newspapers was a stronger predictor of prejudice than positive contact through TV news and newspapers of reduced prejudice. In the fourth study we considered, besides variables included in the questionnaire of the third study, implicit attitudes toward immigrants. Participants were 197 Italian adults and students, who completed an online questionnaire, containing the same measures of the questionnaire used in Study 3, followed by a Single Category IAT (SC-IAT, Karpinski & Steinman, 2006). In the SC-IAT score, higher values reflected more positive implicit attitudes; mean score of the SC-IAT was negative, indicating negative implicit attitudes. We applied regression analysis, to test the effects of the contact measures on prejudice indexes. Positive direct contact, positive extended contact, and positive contact through movies and TV series were strong predictors of reduced explicit prejudice; positive direct contact and positive contact through movies were also weakly related to better implicit outgroup attitudes. Negative direct contact and negative contact through TV news were instead related to worse explicit outgroup attitudes. As in Study 3, positive direct contact, positive extended contact, and positive contact through movies and TV series were more influential, respectively, than negative direct contact, negative extended contact, and negative contact through movies and TV series; concerning contact through TV news and newspapers, instead, the negative episodes increased prejudice more than the positive episodes reduced prejudice. Taken together, results of the four studies showed that: 1. All the contact forms we considered (direct contact, extended contact, contact through TV news and newspapers, contact through movies and TV series) have significant effects on prejudice and on intergroup attitudes. The most influent form of contact is direct contact. 2. It is useful to consider separately positive and negative episodes of contact, which have independent effects. 3. Direct contact and extended contact are usually positive, and the positive episodes of these forms of contact have stronger effects on prejudice reduction, compared to the effects of negative episodes on increased prejudice. 4. To improve the relationships between Italians and immigrants, it could be useful to favor meaningful direct contact, given then, when direct contact occurs, positive episodes are more frequent and more influential than negative episodes. 5. Also programs basing on extended contact could be effective: it would thus be useful to favor social networks with individuals belonging to various outgroups; moreover, programs basing on reading romances or tales portraying cross-group friendships could be implemented in schools. 6. Contact through TV news and newspapers is usually negative; only for this contact form, negative episodes are more influential than positive episodes. It would thus be useful to provide guidelines to mass media, to avoid that the conveyed information increase prejudice toward immigrants. 7. Contact through movies and TV series is generally positive, and is mainly related to the perception of immigrants as fully human, and to better implicit attitudes toward immigrants

Inclusive normative climates strengthen the relationship between identification with Europe and tolerant immigration attitudes: Evidence from 22 countries

Europe as a supranational entity is frequently associated to inclusive and cosmopolitan values, which explains why identification with Europe generally relates to tolerant attitudes toward immigrants. However, because of major immigration movements, Europe has recently gone through demographic and social changes that have challenged its values and identity. In this context, we argue that, because national immigrant integration policies convey social norms about how citizens should deal with issues related to immigration, policies should also shape the association between identification with Europe and attitudes toward immigrants. Indeed, tolerant, more so than intolerant, policies in a country lay the foundations for interpreting identification with Europe as an inclusive stance, and consequently should enhance the association between identification with Europe and reduced anti-immigrant attitudes. To investigate these associations, we conducted a cross-country multilevel analysis including 22 European countries from the 2013 International Social Survey Programme. As predicted, identification with Europe was associated to reduced anti-immigrant prejudice. Furthermore, this negative association was stronger in countries with more tolerant, inclusive policies (assessed by the MIPEX) compared to countries with more intolerant, exclusive policies. Results are discussed in light of the content of European identity and of different embodiments of social norms

Using intercultural videos of direct contact to implement vicarious contact: A school-based intervention that improves intergroup attitudes

We aimed to create an engaging and dynamic intervention for schools that uses videos of direct school peer contact to implement a vicarious contact intervention. Participants were ethnic majority (Italian) and minority (immigrant) high-school students (N = 485, age ranging from 14 to 22 years old, mean age = 17.24 years), who were asked to watch and evaluate videos created by peers from their school for a competition for the best video on intercultural friendships. Results revealed that vicarious contact, relative to a control condition where participants were not shown any videos, improved outgroup attitudes, reduced negative outgroup stereotypes, and increased willingness to engage in contact with the outgroup. These effects only emerged when intercultural friendships in the videos were salient. Inclusion of the other in the self, but neither intergroup anxiety nor fear of rejection by the outgroup, significantly mediated the effect of the videos on outcomes. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of the findings

From ethnic group boundary demarcation to deprovincialization: The interplay of immigrant presence and ideological climate

Intergroup contact (i.e. personal encounters with and presence of immigrants) has frequently been related to improved immigration attitudes among the national majority. The impact of ideological climates, in turn, has received scant attention. Drawing on the notion of deprovincialization, we argue that, in proximal geographical contexts, contact with immigrants as well as progressive (vs conservative) ideological climates engender a reappraisal of national ingroup boundaries by attenuating ethnic views of nationhood. As expected, multilevel regression analyses with the Swiss ISSP 2013 data (N = 1019 Swiss respondents living in 136 districts) revealed that personal encounters with immigrants related to reduced ethnic boundary making. Importantly, on the district level, immigrant presence buffered the impact of conservative ideological climates

I love you too much to keep social distance: Closeness in relationships and (dis)engagement in preventive behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic

: Although we are witnessing a new phase in the management of COVID-19, understanding what predicts adherence to preventive behaviors still remains crucial. In this study we focus on interpersonal relationships by specifically investigating whether engagement in preventive behaviors when in the presence of others may be a function of the type of relationship (in terms of closeness) one has with others. Because close others are often perceived similar to the self compared to strangers, we put forward that close relationships may inadvertently decrease COVID-19 risk perceptions which may ultimately decrease compliance with recommended behaviors when in their presence. To test this hypothesis, 747 Italian respondents were invited to answer one out of four versions of a questionnaire differing on the target (i.e., friends vs. parents vs. grandparents vs. strangers), including questions regarding COVID-19 risk perceptions and intentions to engage in preventive behaviors. Mediation analysis showed that close relationships (i.e., with friends, parents, and grandparents) compared to nonclose relationships (i.e., with strangers) predicted lower intentions to engage in preventive behaviors via lower risk perceptions. Altogether, these results shed light on the role played by closeness in indirectly shaping individuals' dis(engagement) in preventive behaviors and contribute to better understand possible unconscious biases which may undermine our safety during the COVID-19 pandemic

Parental Support during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Friend or Foe? A Moderation Analysis of the Association between Maternal Anxiety and Children’s Stress in Italian Dyads

: There is evidence that parental psychological disorders in stressful situations increase the risk of disturbance in child development. This has been investigated in disasters but not in pandemics, which are sensibly different from other types of traumatic events. We investigated the relationship between mothers' anxiety and their children's (self-reported) stress and the boundary conditions of this association during the first full COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. During the COVID-19 pandemic, mothers might have increased their protective attitudes to secure and support their children; we tested whether the relationship between mothers' anxiety and children's stress was weaker (buffer effect) or stronger (over-protection effect) when perceived parental support was high. We measured mothers' anxiety, children's perceived parental support, and children's stress in a sample of 414 8- to 11-year-old primary school children (229 females, Mage = 9.44) and 395 mothers (Mage = 42.84). Results supported the over-protection scenario and provided the first evidence for the "helicopter-parent effect" during the COVID-19 pandemic: mothers' anxiety was positively associated with children's stress only when perceived support was high. Our finding highlights the importance of educating parents (for example, via emotional training) to prevent the worst consequences of adverse events in children and promote their mental health

National Identification Counteracts the Sedative Effect of Positive Intergroup Contact on Ethnic Activism

Positive intergroup contact with socially and economically advantaged national majorities has been shown to reduce ethnic identification among minorities, thereby undermining ethnic minority activism. This finding implies that ethnic identity is the relevant social identity driving ethnic minorities’ struggle for equality. We argue that the study of the “sedating” effect of positive intergroup contact for minorities should be more nuanced. The existence of multiple and sometimes interplaying social identities can foster a reinterpretation of the meaning of “ethnic” activism. This study therefore examines how the interplay of ethnic and national identities shapes the sedating effect of contact on minority activism. We expect national identification to buffer the sedated activism resulting from reduced ethnic identification. That is, the mediation from intergroup contact to reduced ethnic activism through weakened ethnic identification is expected to be moderated by national identification. With survey data from Bulgaria, we investigated support for ethnic activism among Bulgarian Roma (N D 320) as a function of their contact with the national majority as well as their degree of ethnic and national identification. The predicted moderated mediation was revealed: a negative indirect relationship between contact and activism through decreased ethnic identification occurred among Roma with low national identification, whereas no sedating effect occurred among Roma identifying strongly as members of the Bulgarian nation. We discuss the meaning of national identification for the Roma minority, who experience harsh discrimination in countries where they have been historically settled, as well as convergence of these findings with work on dual identification. We highlight the role of interacting social identities in mobilizing resources for activism and the importance of adopting a critical view on ethnic discourse when studying activism in both traditional and immigrant minoritie

Can street-level bureaucrats be nudged to increase effectiveness in welfare policy?

This article investigates whether street-level bureaucrats can be incentivised to process information in ways that lead to more effective implementation decisions. It draws on the literatures on behavioural public policy (BPP) and street-level bureaucracy to analyse how civil servants implement disability insurance policy in Switzerland. We conducted a field experiment to assess whether a thought-provoking nudge improves the decisional effectiveness of street-level bureaucrats (SLBs). SLBs were assigned to either a ‘business-as-usual’ control condition, or to an experimental condition, where they were called to pay attention to vulnerability processes along the beneficiaries’ life course when making decisions. While we did not find that the thought-provoking nudge directly improved effectiveness, we found that it increased beneficiaries’ humanisation. In particular, there was some evidence for indirect positive effects of the thought-provoking nudge on effectiveness via humanisation. These findings encourage BPP researchers to consider additional dimensions such as humanisation to nudge SLBs into processing information in better ways

The Dynamics of Interminority Extended Contact : The Role of Affective and Cognitive Mediators

Objective: Research on intergroup contact and prejudice reduction has dedicated little attention to relations between minority groups. We examined whether interminority extended contact, that is, the knowledge that a member of the minority ingroup has a friend from the minority outgroup, is associated with positive outgroup attitudes. Affective (outgroup empathy and outgroup trust) and cognitive (ingroup norm) mediators were considered. Method: Two correlational studies were conducted. Study 1 (N = 640, 50% female, mean age = 44 years) was conducted in Bulgaria among the Bulgarian Turkish and Roma ethnic minorities, while Study 2 (N = 458, 67% female, mean age = 44 years) was conducted in Finland among Estonian and Russian immigrants. Results: Path analyses showed that, over and above the effects of direct contact between the minority groups, interminority extended contact was associated with positive outgroup attitudes in both intergroup settings. These effects occurred through empathy (Study 1), trust, and ingroup norms (Study 2). Conclusion: The 2 studies highlight interminority extended contact as a means to promote harmonious interminority relationships and suggest the implementation of interventions based on extended contact to reduce interminority prejudice and to foster solidarity among minorities.Peer reviewe

Support for Social Change Among Members of Advantaged Groups: The Role of a Dual Identity Representation and Accepting Intergroup Contact

This preregistered research analyzed survey data from ethnic and religious advantaged groups in 12 countries ( N = 2,304) to examine the interplay between two determinants of support for social change toward intergroup equality. Drawing on the needs-based model and the common-ingroup identity model, we hypothesized that the experience of accepting intergroup contact and the endorsement of a dual identity representation of intergroup relations would be associated with greater support for equality. Furthermore, integrating the logic of both models, we tested the novel hypothesis that the positive effect of accepting contact on support for equality would be stronger under a high (vs. low) dual identity representation. While the predicted main effects received empirical support, we found no evidence for the expected interaction. These findings suggest that interventions to foster support for social change among advantaged group members can promote accepting contact and a dual identity representation independently of each other