Coupling hydrological and irrigation schedule models for the management of surface and groundwater resources in Khorezm, Uzbekistan

The irrigated agriculture in the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan is characterized by huge water withdrawals from the Amu Darya River. The vast infrastructure built for extensive irrigation, together with inappropriate drainage infrastructure, leads to a build-up of very shallow groundwater (GW) levels, followed by waterlogging and salt accumulation in the soil profile. Previous studies revealed deficits in the management and maintenance institutions, inappropriate and inflexible irrigation strategies, poor linkages between field level demands, and in the operation of the network. No flexible water management tool is currently in use that, by pre-conceiving mitigation strategies, would aim at reducing the current yield reductions. This study aimed to develop and introduce such a tool at the irrigation scheme level, illustrated at the example of the Water Users Association (WUA) Shomakhulum in Khorezm (about 2,000 ha of farmland). The tool can support managerial decisions on optimization of water use, particularly under the deficitary water supply predicted under climate change. Remote Sensing (RS) techniques (SEBAL) were used in combination with real-time hydrological measurements (e.g., ponding experiments to estimate losses in canals) to assess the operational performance of the WUA. Delivery performance ratio (DPR), relative evapotranspiration (RET), depleted fraction (DF), drainage ratio (DR), overall consumed ratio (OCR), field application ratio (FAR) and conveyance ratio (CR) were used as performance indicators. Using the current and target values for FAR and CR, three improved irrigation efficiency scenarios were developed (S-A: baseline or business-as-usual (BAU), S-B: improving CR; S-C: raising FAR; S-D: improving FAR and CR together). Recharge to the aquifer was determined for these scenarios by the water balance approach. Spatial dynamics of GW levels and soil characteristics (factors that affect recharge) were represented by dividing the WUA into ‘hydrological response units’. The FEFLOW-3D model was used to simulate GW dynamics under the scenarios. Recharge rates—through which the scenarios impact on GW— were a major input to this model. Simulated GW levels served in turn as an input to the HYDRUS-1D model used to estimate the capillary rise contribution of the GW to water demands of the key crops cotton, winter wheat and vegetables. The daily capillary rise was in turn fed into the CROPWAT model to simulate optimal irrigation scheduling (IS) and different water management scenarios. This novel hierarchical coupling of RS/GIS with the FEFLOW, HYDRUS and CROPWAT models was applied to the WUA area for an optimal management of surface and GW. Operational performance of the irrigation system under BAU is very poor. Although RET (0.82) is near to target value (0.75), a DPR >1 indicates inefficient use of the supplied water. The FAR shows that under BAU 57 % of the delivered water is lost during application. The values of DF (0.4), OCR (0.51) and DR (0.55) do not match target values postulated in the literature, suggesting severe flaws in water distribution. Results of the water balance model show that the average recharge to the WUA under BAU (4 mm d-1) can be reduced to 3.4, 1.8 and 1.4 mm d-1 in S-B, S-C and S-D, respectively. FEFLOW simulations show that improvements in irrigation efficiency alone can lower the GW levels by 12 cm (S-B), 38 cm (S-C) and 44 cm (S-D) compared to the BAU. Furthermore, HYDRUS-1D modeling shows that GW contributes up to 19% to the WUA’s total water requirement under BAU. This would be reduced to 17, 11 and 9 % for S-B, S-C and S-D, respectively, leading to lower salt accumulation but higher net irrigation requirements. Simulated IS under BAU shows a 7 % (official IS) and 41.6 % (farmers’ practice) reduction in cotton yield from the optimum IS. To mitigate adverse effects of water scarcity, the optimal IS was developed assuming 25 and 50 % reduced surface water supplies. Minimum yield losses with 25 % reduced water supply will be in the range of 10-20 %, and with water reduction of 50 % will be up to 22-30 %. Three water saving scenarios (WSS-1: introducing crops of low water demand, WSS-2: leaving marginal land out, and WSS-3: improving the irrigation efficiency) were introduced. Water savings of 9, 20 and 41 % can be achieved for WSS-1, WSS-2 and WSS-3, respectively. The results of the study provide important guidelines for the water management institutes in the region.Die Kopplung hydrologischer Bewässerungssteuerungsmodelle mit Bewässerungssteuerungsmodellen für die Bewirtschaftung von Oberflächen- und Grundwasserressourcen in Khorezm, Usbekistan Ausgedehnte Bewässerungsanlagen und hohe Wasserentnahmen aus dem Fluss Amu Darya kennzeichnen die Bewässerungswirtschaft in Khorezm/Usbekistan. Die dadurch in Verbindung mit unzureichender Entwässerung verursachten sehr hohen Grundwasserstände führen zu Vernässung und begünstigen die Bodenversalzung. Bisherige Studien belegen Defizite der für Betrieb und Unterhaltung der Systeme zuständigen Institutionen, unangemessene und starre Bewässerungsstrategien und eine unzureichende Abstimmung zwischen Feldwasserbedarf und Systembetrieb. Es fehlt ein flexibles Bewässerungssteuerungsmodell, das die Erarbeitung vorausschauender Strategien zur Verringerung von Ertragseinbußen ermöglicht. Die vorliegende Arbeit zielt auf die Entwicklung und Anwendung eines solchen Modells für die Wassernutzereinheit (WUA) Schomachulum in Choresm/Usbekistan (2000 ha bewässerte Fläche). Das Modell soll Optimierungsentscheidungen des Wassermanagements unterstützen, insbesondere für den Fall von Dargebotsengpässen, durch globale Klimaänderungen. Fernerkundungstechniken (SEBAL-Algorithmus: potenzielle und aktuelle Evapotranspiration) wurden mit hydrologischen Messungen kombiniert (ponding-Verfahren: Wasserverluste in Kanälen), um die Effizienz des Bewässerungsbetriebs einzuschätzen. Als Indikatoren dienten delivery performance ratio (DPR), relative evapotranspiration (RET), depleted fraction (DF), drainage ratio (DR), overall consumed ratio (OCR), field application ratio (FAR) and conveyance ratio (CR). Derzeitige Beträge und Zielwerte für FAR und CR wurden benutzt, um 3 Szenarien mit verbesserten Wirkungsgraden zu entwickeln (S-A: Ausgangssituation; S-B: verbesserter CR; S-C: erhöhter FAR; S-D: Kombination verbesserter CR und erhöhter FAR). Die Auswirkungen der Szenarien auf die Grundwasserneubildung wurden mit einem Wasserbilanzansatz abgeschätzt. Um räumliche Variabilitäten des Grundwasserstands und der Bodenverhältnisse (Faktoren auf die Grundwasserneubildung) zu berücksichtigen, wurde die WUA in homogene Untereinheiten aufgeteilt (hydrological response units). Das Grundwassermodell FEFLOW ermöglichte die Simulation der Grundwasserdynamik für die Szenarien. Die Neubildungsraten stellen dabei den Einfluss der Szenarien auf das Grundwassersystem dar. Die simulierten Grundwasserstände dienten als Eingangsgrößen in das HYDRUS-1D-Modell, das eine Quantifizierung des kapillaren Aufstiegs als Beitrag zur Deckung des Pflanzenwasserbedarfs für wesentliche Kulturen in der WUA (Baumwolle, Winterweizen, Gemüse) in Tagesschritten erlaubte. Diese gingen in das CROPWAT-Modell ein, womit optimale Bewässerungspläne für die Szenarien erarbeitet werden konnten. Die Effizienz des Bewässerungsbetriebs ist derzeit ungünstig. Obwohl RET mit 0,82 in der Nähe des Zielwertes liegt (0,75), belegt ein DPR-Wert >1 eine ineffiziente Wassernutzung. Das derzeitige Niveau des FAR zeigt, dass 57% des auf die Felder geleiteten Wassers verloren geht. Die Werte für DF (0,4), OCR (0,51) und DR (0,55) weichen von den Zielwerten (aus Literaturauswertung) ab und verdeutlichen Probleme der Wasserverteilung. Im Ausgangsszenario erreicht die durchschnittliche tägliche Grundwasserneubildung 4 mm d-1; für die Szenarien S-B, S-C und S-D ergeben sich 3,4 bzw. 1,8 bzw. 1,4 mm d-1. Die FEFLOW-Simulationen zeigen, dass die mit den Szenarien korrespondierenden Wirkungsgradverbesserungen zu Grundwasserständen führen, die um 12 cm (S-B), 38 cm (S-C) und 44 cm (S-D) unter denen der Ausgangssituation (S-A) liegen. HYDRUS ermöglicht die Einschätzung, dass derzeit 19% des Pflanzenwasserbedarfs durch den kapillaren Aufstieg gedeckt werden. Für die Szenarien ergeben sich Reduzierungen auf 17% (S-B), 11% (S-C) und 9% (S-D), was Salzakkumulation verringert aber den Nettobewässerungsbedarf erhöht. Im Vergleich mit optimierten Wasserverteilungsplänen (Simulation) führt die offizielle (Norm-basierte) Wasserverteilung zu 7% und die von Landwirten praktizierte Anwendung zu 41,6% Ertragsverlust bei Baumwolle. Das Steuerungsmodell wurde auch genutzt, um die Auswirkungen einer Unterversorgung auf den Ertrag zu minimieren. Bei einem um 25% (50%) verminderten Wasserdargebot läßt sich die Ertragseinbuße auf 10-18% (20-30%) begrenzen. Die Simulation von Wassereinsparoptionen (WSS-1: wasserextensivere Kulturen; WSS-2: Aufgabe marginaler Standorte; WSS-3: Wirkungsgradverbesserung) belegt Einsparpotentiale von 9% (WSS-1), 20% (WSS-2) und 41% (WSS-3). Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit liefern wesentliche Grundlagen für wasserwirtschaftliche Institutionen in der Region

SERVICE QUALITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AS PREDICTORS OF FACULTY JOB SATISFACTION

The objective of this study is to examine the impact ofperceived internal service quality and organizational culture onfaculty’s job satisfaction. A survey questionnaire was operationalizedbased on the dimensions proposed by Owlia and Aspinwall, Cameronand Freeman and Spector to the data collect from 348 medical facultymembers employed by12 medical schools of Pakistan. Our findingssuggest that hierarchal culture is the strongest contributor of facultyjob satisfaction lacking behind the other culture types. “Assuranceand empathy” contributes more to job satisfaction than any otherdimension of service quality. And, as a whole, service quality hasemerged as a stronger predictor of job satisfaction than organizationalculture. This paper has both practical and theoretical contributionsto improve the overall quality of higher education

Domestic energy consumption data, drivers and prediction models for Punjab, Pakistan plus the potential energy supply contribution from domestic solar technologies

Pakistan is an emerging economy with 210 million people and growing domestic energy demand, facing economic, geographic, geopolitical, energy supply and climate change challenges. The findings from this research are intended to support future government and energy industry policy in this area, especially the transition to a low carbon economy. Currently, 67% of Pakistan’s energy demand is met with non-renewable resources. The domestic sector consumes ~48% of Pakistan’s total energy demand, including biofuels. This thesis presents novel insights into Punjab (52% of Pakistan’s population) domestic sector energy demand drivers. A statistically significant 4597 responses obtained from a physical questionnaire survey conducted in 2017-18 allowed the derivation of domestic sector energy prediction models, along with the rooftop areas available for renewable energy generation amongst other unique data insights. The survey covered all ten Punjab divisions, enabling the models produced to be generally applicable to Punjab. The research found the key drivers of electrical energy demand per household are the number of appliances, number of lights, and the number and area of conditioned rooms. In the per capita models, the key drivers are the overall power rating of the appliances, particularly the power rating of the air conditioners for cooling. For annual gas use, the gross internal floor area and occupancy are found as weak demand drivers. The data obtained from the survey also allowed exploration of the potential for domestic solar renewable energy generation. The available rooftop area was shown to have potential to exceed the total current electrical energy demand of the domestic sector many times using current PV technology. A similar finding was achieved for the use of solar thermal technology for domestic hot water and space heating throughout the year. The thesis findings suggest that addressing the energy demand drivers of the domestic sector, and the encouragement of installation of domestic renewable energy systems could form a significant component in Pakistan’s transition towards a more resilient energy supply system and a low carbon future

Domestic sector energy demand and prediction models for Punjab Pakistan

The domestic sector consumes ~48% of Pakistan’s total energy demand, including biofuels. Pakistan is an emerging economy with 210 million people and growing domestic energy demand, facing economic, geographic, geopolitical, and climate change challenges. This paper presents novel insights into the Punjab, Pakistan domestic sector energy demand, which accounts for over 52% of the Pakistan population, along with energy prediction models derived from a statistically significant 4597 responses obtained from a physical questionnaire survey conducted in 2017-18, which aimed at ascertaining the main domestic energy demand drivers. These models will support future government and energy industry policy in this area, especially the transition to a low carbon economy. Currently, 67% of Pakistan’s energy demand is met with non-renewable resources. Analysis of the survey data reveals the key drivers of electrical energy demand per household are the number of appliances, number of lights, and the number of conditioned rooms. In the per capita models, the key drivers are the overall power rating of the appliances, particularly the power rating of the air conditioners for cooling. For annual gas use, weak correlations per household and capita were found only for the floor area. The average annual electricity and gas usages per household are 2401 kWh/a and 5245 kWh/a respectively, and per capita are 391 kWh/ a and 770 kWh/a. For electricity, the occupancy, floor area, conditioned rooms, appliances, lights and power rating have predictive power. For gas, only floor area is predictive

Development of a Service Quality Scale for Pharmaceutical Supply Chains

Purpose – To develop a scale for the measurement of service quality in pharmaceutical supply chains. Methodology / approach - 413 pharmaceutical retailers working in the 2 biggest cities of Pakistan responded to a survey. Confirmatory factor analysis developed a valid and reliable service quality measurement scale with 4 dimensions and 10 items. Findings - Findings of this research are consistent with other service quality studies. There is no universal set of dimensions and items that determine service quality across a section of service industries. Service quality measurement must be adapted to fit the context. Research limitations / implications – Convenience sampling was undertaken for this research. This research contributes to the measurement of service quality by developing a valid and reliable measurement scale in a previously ignored sector. Practical implications – The scale developed in this research can be used by pharmaceutical distribution companies in Pakistan to measure, control and improve the service quality provided to pharmaceutical retailers. Originality / value - This research provides framework to researchers to build up more pharmaceutical supply chains service quality scale development studies in similar situations so that more concrete generalizations can be made

Reducing the Risk of Pesticide Residues in the Groundwater: A Case Study of Punjab

The objective of this study was to reduce the risks of pesticide residues in groundwater, through the use of Good Agriculture Practices (Gaps) the data (primary) were collected with the help of two pretested questionnaires. SQC (Statistical Quality Control) tools and Hazard Identification Based System were used on data, for the determination of the risk from different activities, related to pesticide usage. It was observed that induction of risk assessment and the principle of quality management at an early stage of the food supply chain which would increase the efficiency of farming and also decreased the different types of hazards, related to the agricultural activit

Reducing the Risk of Pesticide Residues in the Groundwater: A Case Study of Punjab

The objective of this study was to reduce the risks of pesticide residues in groundwater, through the use of Good Agriculture Practices (Gaps) the data (primary) were collected with the help of two pretested questionnaires. SQC (Statistical Quality Control) tools and Hazard Identification Based System were used on data, for the determination of the risk from different activities, related to pesticide usage. It was observed that induction of risk assessment and the principle of quality management at an early stage of the food supply chain which would increase the efficiency of farming and also decreased the different types of hazards, related to the agricultural activit