An Assessment of the UK’s Trade with Developing Countries under the Generalised System of Preferences

The European Union (EU) Generalised System of Preferences (GSP Scheme) grants preferential treatment to 88 eligible countries. There are, however, concerns that the restrictive features (such as Rules of Origin, Low Preference Margin and Low Coverage) of the existing scheme indicate gravitation towards commercial trade agenda to which efficiency imperatives appear subordinated. Whether these concerns are genuine is an empirical question whose answer largely determines whether, after Brexit, the UK continues with the existing specifics of the EU scheme or develops a more inclusive UK-specific GSP framework. This study quantitatively examines the efficiency of the EU GSP as it relates to UK beneficiaries from 2014 to 2017. We draw on the descriptive efficiency estimation (The utilisation Rate, Potential Coverage Rate, and the Utility Rate) using import data across 88 beneficiary countries and agricultural products of the Harmonised System Code Chapter 1 to 24. Asides the Rules of Origin that, generally, harm the uptake of GSP, low preference margin is found to cause low utilisation rates in a non-linear manner. Essentially, a more robust option (such that allows “global Cumulation” or broader product coverage) could, substantially, lower the existing barriers to trade and upsurge the efficiency of the GSP scheme

Agricultural research and economic development

In IDL-78

Evaluation of polymyxin B in combination with 13 other antibiotics against carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in time-lapse microscopy and time-kill experiments

Objectives: This study aimed to explore the interactions of polymyxin B in combination with 13 other antibiotics against carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Methods: Five clinical isolates of multidrug-resistant K. pneumoniae producing KPC-2, KPC-3, NDM-1, OXA-48 and VIM-1 carbapenemases were used. Polymyxin B was tested alone and in combination with amikacin, aztreonam, cefepime, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, fosfomycin, linezolid, meropenem, minocycline, rifampicin, temocillin, thiamphenicol and trimethoprim. Inhibition of growth during antibiotic exposure was evaluated in 24-hr automated time-lapse microscopy experiments. Combinations that showed positive interactions were subsequently evaluated in static time-kill experiments. Results: All strains carried multiple (>9) resistance genes as determined by whole-genome sequencing. In the initial screening the combination of polymyxin B and minocycline was most active with enhanced activity compared with the single antibiotics detected against all strains. Positive interactions were also observed with polymyxin B in combination with rifampicin and fosfomycin against four of five strains and less frequently with other antibiotics. Time-kill experiments demonstrated an additive or synergistic activity (1-2 log10 or >= 2 log(10) CFU/mL reduction, respectively, compared with the most potent single antibiotic) with 21 of 23 tested combinations. However, because of regrowth, only 13 combinations were synergistic at 24 hr. Combinations with minocycline or rifampicin were most active, each showing synergy and bacteriostatic or bactericidal effects resulting in 1.93-3.97 and 2.55-5.91 log(10) CFU/mL reductions, respectively, after 24 hr against four strains. Discussion: Polymyxin B in combination with minocycline, rifampicin or fosfomycin could be of potential clinical interest. Time-lapse microscopy showed some discrepancy in results compared with the time-kill data but was useful for screening purposes