Bathing water quality monitoring practices in europe and the United States

Publisher Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.Many countries including EU Member States (EUMS) and the United States (U.S.) regularly monitor the microbial quality of bathing water to protect public health. This study comprehensively evaluates the EU bathing water directive (BWD) and the U.S. recreational water quality criteria (RWQC) as regulatory frameworks for monitoring microbial quality of bathing water. The major differences between these two regulatory frameworks are the provision of bathing water profiles, classification of bathing sites based on the pollution level, variations in the sampling frequency, accepted probable illness risk, epidemiological studies conducted during the development of guideline values, and monitoring methods. There are also similarities between the two approaches given that both enumerate viable fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) as an index of the potential risk to human health in bathing water and accept such risk up to a certain level. However, enumeration of FIB using methods outlined within these current regulatory frameworks does not consider the source of contamination nor variation in inactivation rates of enteric microbes in different ecological contexts, which is dependent on factors such as temperature, solar radiation, and salinity in various climatic regions within their geographical areas. A comprehensive "tool-box approach", i.e., coupling of FIB and viral pathogen indicators with microbial source tracking for regulatory purposes, offers potential for delivering improved understanding to better protect the health of bathers.Peer reviewe

Wastewater Surveillance Detected Carbapenemase Enzymes in Clinically Relevant Gram-Negative Bacteria in Helsinki, Finland; 2011-2012

Antimicrobial resistance profiling of pathogens helps to identify the emergence of rare or new resistance threats and prioritize possible actions to be taken against them. The analysis of wastewater (WW) can reveal the circulation of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARG) among the catchment communities. Here, we analyzed WW influent samples to determine the prevalence of carbapenemase genes-carrying Gram-negative bacteria (Carba-GNB) in Helsinki, Finland. This study set important historical reference points from the very early stage of the carbapenemase era, during the period 2011-2012. A total of 405 bacterial isolates grown on CHROMagarKPC (n = 195) and CHROMagarESBL (n = 210) from WW influent samples were collected between October 2011 and August 2012 and were analyzed. The bacterial DNA from the isolates was extracted, and the prevalence of carbapenemases genes bla(KPC), bla(NDM), bla(GES), bla(OXA-48), bla(IMP), bla(IMI), and bla(VIM) were screened with multiplexed PCR. All carbapenemase-positive isolates were identified taxonomically to species or genus level with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). The nucleic acid extraction was successful for 399 isolates, of which 59 (14.8%) were found to carry carbapenemase genes. A total of 89.8% of the carbapenemase positive isolates (53 out of 59) were obtained from CHROMagarKPC plates and only 10.2% (six out of 59) were obtained from CHROMagar ESBL plates. Among the Carba-GNB isolates, 86.4% were bla(GES) (51 out of 59), 10.2% were bla(KPC) (six out of 59), and 3.4% were bla(VIM) (two out of 59). The most common carba-gene, bla(GES), was carried by 10 different bacterial species, including Aeromonas spp., Enterobacter spp., and Kluyvera spp.; the bla(KPC) gene was carried by Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Kluyvera cryocescens; and the bla(VIM) gene was carried by Aeromonas hydrophila/caviae and Citrobacter amalonaticus. This study emphasizes that wastewater surveillance (WWS) can be an additional tool for monitoring antimicrobial resistance (AMR) at the population level.Peer reviewe

The Use of Ribosomal RNA as a Microbial Source Tracking Target Highlights the Assay Host-Specificity Requirement in Water Quality Assessments

Funding Information: We thank Tiina Heiskanen, Tarja Rahkonen, and Tarja Yli-Tuomi for their technical assistance and local health and environment authorities, and communal water supply personnel Jukka Meriluoto, Salla Leppänen, Anu Väänänen, Päivi Rissanen, Katja Ylönen, Hanna Jääskeläinen, and especially Ville Soininen and Inkeri Eronen, who received funding for the work from the North Ostrobothnia Centre for Economic Development, Transport, and the Environment (grant number POPELY/2687/2017), for organizing sample collection. Funding. This research was supported in part by the cities of Kalajoki, Tampere, Kuopio, and the municipal wastewater treatment plants Hämeenlinnan Seudun Vesi Ltd., Nokian Vesi Ltd., and Oulun Vesi Ltd., who provided samples for the study. Further, the work was partially funded by the Regional Council of Häme, grant number 518 HL/106/04.01.01/2018. We acknowledge all of the project partners and collaborators, especially the personnel of HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinnan Seudun Vesi Ltd., the Lammi Biological Station, and Ilkka Hirvonen of Led Future Ltd. Funding Information: This research was supported in part by the cities of Kalajoki, Tampere, Kuopio, and the municipal wastewater treatment plants Hämeenlinnan Seudun Vesi Ltd., Nokian Vesi Ltd., and Oulun Vesi Ltd., who provided samples for the study. Further, the work was partially funded by the Regional Council of Häme, grant number 518 HL/106/04.01.01/2018. We acknowledge all of the project partners and collaborators, especially the personnel of HAMK University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinnan Seudun Vesi Ltd., the Lammi Biological Station, and Ilkka Hirvonen of Led Future Ltd. Publisher Copyright: © Copyright © 2021 Rytkönen, Tiwari, Hokajärvi, Uusheimo, Vepsäläinen, Tulonen and Pitkänen.For microbial source tracking (MST), the 16S ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) of host-specific bacteria and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of animal species, known to cause fecal contamination of water, have been commonly used as molecular targets. However, low levels of contamination might remain undetected by using these DNA-based qPCR assays. The high copy numbers of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) could offer a solution for such applications of MST. This study compared the performance of eight MST assays: GenBac3 (general Bacteroidales), HF183 (human), BacCan (dog), Rum-2-Bac (ruminant), Pig-2-Bac (swine), Gull4 (gull), GFD, and Av4143 (birds) between rRNA-based and rDNA-based approaches. Three mtDNA-based approaches were tested: DogND5, SheepCytB, and HorseCytB. A total of 151 animal fecal samples and eight municipal sewage samples from four regions of Finland were collected for the marker evaluation. The usability of these markers was tested by using a total of 95 surface water samples with an unknown pollution load. Overall, the performance (specificity, sensitivity, and accuracy) of mtDNA-based assays was excellent (95-100%), but these markers were very seldom detected from the tested surface water samples. The rRNA template increased the sensitivity of assays in comparison to the rDNA template. All rRNA-based assays (except Av4143) had more than 80% sensitivity. In contrast, only half (HF183, Rum-2-Bac, Pig-2-Bac, and Gull4) of rDNA-based assays reached this value. For markers targeted to bird feces, the use of the rRNA-based assay increased or at least did not change the performance. Regarding specificity, all the assays had >95% specificity with a DNA template, except the BacCan assay (71%). While using the RNA template for the assays, HF183 and BacCan exhibited only a low level of specificity (54 and 55%, respectively). Further, the HF183 assay amplified from multiple non-targeted animal fecal samples with the RNA template and the marker showed cross-amplification with the DNA template as well. This study recommends using the rRNA-based approach for MST assays targeting bird fecal contamination. In the case of mammal-specific MST assays, the use of the rRNA template increases the sensitivity but may reduce the specificity and accuracy of the assay. The finding of increased sensitivity calls for a further need to develop better rRNA-based approaches to reach the required assay performance.peerReviewe

Bio-Based PLA Membranes for Ion Transport and Ion Filtration

Lithium-ion batteries require battery separators for both safety and electrochemical performance. Due to that, they have received a lot of attention. In order to prevent any electronic current from moving within the negative and positive electrodes and allow ions to flow through while avoidance of electric contact between them, a porous membrane used as a separator is positioned between the electrodes with opposing polarities. Accordingly, the objective of the present work is to build a biodegradable PLA based battery separator, which has exceptional thermal capabilities and can endure temperatures of up to 300°C. They also seem to serve as the least degree of barrier for the flow of an ionic current. In this study bio-polymer battery separator membranes were developed using PLA as matrix material and fillers such as Copper slag (CS) and Cardanol resin (CNSL). CS and CNSL were preferred for the reason to realize the concept of a wealth reclaimed from wastes that act as toughening and pore forming agent for PLA matrix. It is found that at PLA-CS film has more brittleness when compared to neat PLA and PLA-CNSL resin. On the other hand, PLA-CNSL films are the toughest ones. Overall, it has been demonstrated that obtaining more sustainable and high-performance is possible by the usage of such sustainable materials for futuristic developments

Pilot study on wastewater surveillance of dengue virus RNA: Lessons, challenges, and implications for future research

Dengue virus (DENV) is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus that causes approximately 390 million infections, leading to 40,000 deaths annually. Due to the increasing trend of urbanization, water supply scarcity, and climate change, dengue is regarded as the “disease of the future,” requiring robust surveillance for the early detection of DENV infection. Since the virus is shed in urine and saliva and persists in wastewater at different temperatures, our study conducted wastewater surveillance as a novel approach to monitor dengue outbreaks in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The viral concentrates (n = 34), which were previously collected and concentrated from municipal and hospital wastewater, and river water using the electronegative membrane-vortex method, were tested for DENV using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and digital PCR (RT-dPCR). Pepper mild mottle virus, a process control and endogenous biomarker, was detected in all the samples with concentrations ranging from 8.0 to 10.0 log10 copies/L, whereas DENV was not detected in any sample using RT-dPCR and RT-qPCR. The undetected DENV in this study could be attributed to the collection of grab wastewater samples during a low relative prevalence of dengue infection in the region, insufficient sample volume processed, probable viral nucleic acid degradation due to storage of viral concentrate at -25 °C for a long period of time, or inefficiency of the primary concentration method used. This study highlights critical gaps in knowledge and provides recommendations for future implementation of wastewater surveillance of dengue outbreaks, especially in regions where dengue was recently introduced, clinical surveillance is limited, and wastewater surveillance for polio has been adopted.Peer reviewe

Application of digital PCR for public health-related water quality monitoring

Digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR) is emerging as a reliable platform for quantifying microorganisms in the field of water microbiology. This paper reviews the fundamental principles of dPCR and its application for health-related water microbiology. The relevant literature indicates increasing adoption of dPCR for measuring fecal indicator bacteria, microbial source tracking marker genes, and pathogens in various aquatic environments. The adoption of dPCR has accelerated recently due to increasing use for wastewater surveillance of Severe Acute Respiratory Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) -the virus that causes Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). The collective experience in the scientific literature indicates that well-optimized dPCR assays can quantify genetic material from microorganisms without the need for a calibration curve and often with superior analytical performance (i.e., greater sensitivity, precision, and reproducibility) than quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Nonetheless, dPCR should not be viewed as a panacea for the fundamental uncertainties and limitations associated with measuring microorganisms in water microbiology. With dPCR platforms, the sample analysis cost and processing time are typically greater than qPCR. However, if improved analytical performance (i.e., sensitivity and accuracy) is critical, dPCR can be an alternative option for quantifying microorganisms, including pathogens, in aquatic environments.Peer reviewe

A comparative analysis employing a gene- and genome-centric metagenomic approach reveals changes in composition, function, and activity in waterworks with different treatment processes and source water in Finland

The emergence and development of next-generation sequencing technologies (NGS) has made the analysis of the water microbiome in drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) more accessible and opened new perspectives in microbial ecology studies. The current study focused on the characterization of the water microbiome employing a gene- and genome-centric metagenomic approach to five waterworks in Finland with different raw water sources, treatment methods, and disinfectant. The microbial communities exhibit a distribution pattern of a few dominant taxa and a large representation of low-abundance bacterial species. Changes in the community structure may correspond to the presence or absence and type of disinfectant residual which indicates that these conditions exert selective pressure on the microbial community. The Archaea domain represented a small fraction (up to 2.5%) and seemed to be effectively controlled by the disinfection of water. Their role particularly in non-disinfected DWDS may be more important than previously considered. In general, non-disinfected DWDSs harbor higher microbial richness and maintaining disinfectant residual is significantly important for ensuring low microbial numbers and diversity. Metagenomic binning recovered 139 (138 bacterial and 1 archaeal) metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) that had a >50% completeness andPeer reviewe

Bacterial Genes Encoding Resistance Against Antibiotics and Metals in Well-Maintained Drinking Water Distribution Systems in Finland

Information on the co-occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and metal resistance genes (MRGs) among bacterial communities in drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) is scarce. This study characterized ARGs and MRGs in five well-maintained DWDSs in Finland. The studied DWDSs had different raw water sources and treatment methods. Two of the waterworks employed artificially recharged groundwater (ARGW) and used no disinfection in the treatment process. The other three waterworks (two surface and one groundwater source) used UV light and chlorine during the treatment process. Ten bulk water samples (two from each DWDS) were collected, and environmental DNA was extracted and then sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq platform for high-throughput shotgun metagenome sequencing. A total of 430 ARGs were characterized among all samples with the highest diversity of ARGs identified from samples collected from non-disinfected DWDSs. Furthermore, non-disinfected DWDSs contained the highest diversity of bacterial communities. However, samples from DWDSs using disinfectants contained over double the ratio of ARG reads to 16S rRNA gene reads and most of the MRG (namely mercury and arsenic resistance genes). The total reads and types of ARGs conferring genes associated with antibiotic groups namely multidrug resistance, and bacitracin, beta-lactam, and aminoglycoside and mercury resistance genes increased in waterworks treating surface water with disinfection. The findings of this study contribute toward a comprehensive understanding of ARGs and MRGs in DWDSs. The occurrence of bacteria carrying antibiotic or metal resistance genes in drinking water causes direct exposure to people, and thus, more systematic investigation is needed to decipher the potential effect of these resistomes on human health.Peer reviewe

Association between Global Monkeypox Cases and Meteorological Factors

The emergence of an outbreak of Monkeypox disease (MPXD) is caused by a contagious zoonotic Monkeypox virus (MPXV) that has spread globally. Yet, there is no study investigating the effect of climatic changes on MPXV transmission. Thus, studies on the changing epidemiology, evolving nature of the virus, and ecological niche are highly paramount. Determination of the role of potential meteorological drivers including temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, dew point, wind speed, and surface pressure is beneficial to understand the MPXD outbreak. This study examines the changes in MPXV cases over time while assessing the meteorological characteristics that could impact these disparities from the onset of the global outbreak. To conduct this data-based research, several well-accepted statistical techniques including Simple Exponential Smoothing (SES), Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA), Automatic forecasting time-series model (Prophet), and Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average with Explanatory Variables (ARIMAX) were applied to delineate the correlation of the meteorological factors on global daily Monkeypox cases. Data on MPXV cases including affected countries spanning from 6 May 2022, to 9 November 2022, from global databases and meteorological data were used to evaluate the developed models. According to the ARIMAX model, the results showed that temperature, relative humidity, and surface pressure have a positive impact [(51.56, 95% confidence interval (CI): -274.55 to 377.68), (17.32, 95% CI: -83.71 to 118.35) and (23.42, 95% CI: -9.90 to 56.75), respectively] on MPXV cases. In addition, dew/frost point, precipitation, and wind speed show a significant negative impact on MPXD cases. The Prophet model showed a significant correlation with rising MPXD cases, although the trend predicts peak values while the overall trend increases. This underscores the importance of immediate and appropriate preventive measures (timely preparedness and proactive control strategies) with utmost priority against MPXD including awareness-raising programs, the discovery, and formulation of effective vaccine candidate(s), prophylaxis and therapeutic regimes, and management strategies.Peer reviewe