Understanding the prevalence of bear part consumption in Cambodia:A comparison of specialised questioning techniques

<div><p>The trade in bear parts for medicine and for status is a conservation challenge throughout Asia. The Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) are endemic to this region, and populations are estimated to have declined throughout their ranges due to widespread illegal killing of bears and trade in parts, combined with loss of habitat. Previous studies have indicated that legislation alone is insufficient to prevent illegal hunting and trade, indicating instead a need to address demand for bear parts and products. We conducted mixed-method surveys in Cambodia to understand the key motivators for individuals to consume bear parts, and to understand whether specialised questioning techniques are applicable in this context. Bear part use is illegal in Cambodia and may therefore be considered a sensitive behaviour, in that individuals may be reluctant to admit to it. To counteract possible biases, four specialised questioning techniques were used in this study: randomised response technique (RRT), unmatched count technique (UCT), nominative technique (NT), and false consensus bias (FCB). All four methods serve to shield a respondent’s admittance of a sensitive behaviour from the interviewer. The results presented here show that great variability exists in anonymous methods’ efficacy in certain contexts. However, the results overall indicate that individuals in Cambodia are under-reporting their consumption of bear parts when directly asked, and that the prevalence of bear part use in Cambodia may be as high as 15% of the population, representing a significant conservation challenge.</p></div

Understanding the prevalence of bear part consumption in Cambodia:A comparison of specialised questioning techniques

The trade in bear parts for medicine and for status is a conservation challenge throughout Asia. The Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) are endemic to this region, and populations are estimated to have declined throughout their ranges due to widespread illegal killing of bears and trade in parts, combined with loss of habitat. Previous studies have indicated that legislation alone is insufficient to prevent illegal hunting and trade, indicating instead a need to address demand for bear parts and products. We conducted mixed-method surveys in Cambodia to understand the key motivators for individuals to consume bear parts, and to understand whether specialised questioning techniques are applicable in this context. Bear part use is illegal in Cambodia and may therefore be considered a sensitive behaviour, in that individuals may be reluctant to admit to it. To counteract possible biases, four specialised questioning techniques were used in this study: randomised response technique (RRT), unmatched count technique (UCT), nominative technique (NT), and false consensus bias (FCB). All four methods serve to shield a respondent’s admittance of a sensitive behaviour from the interviewer. The results presented here show that great variability exists in anonymous methods’ efficacy in certain contexts. However, the results overall indicate that individuals in Cambodia are under-reporting their consumption of bear parts when directly asked, and that the prevalence of bear part use in Cambodia may be as high as 15% of the population, representing a significant conservation challenge

Insectivorous bat reproduction and human cave visitation in Cambodia: A perfect conservation storm?

Cave roosting bats represent an important component of Southeast Asian bat diversity and are vulnerable to human disturbance during critical reproductive periods (pregnancy, lactation and weaning). Because dramatic growth of cave tourism in recent decades has raised concerns about impacts on cave bats in the region, we assessed the reproductive phenology of two insectivorous species (Hipposideros larvatus sensu lato and Taphozous melanopogon) at three caves in Cambodia for 23 months in 2014-2016 and evaluated human visitation to these sites between 2007 and 2014. Despite the differing foraging strategies employed by the two taxa, the temporal consistency observed in proportions of pregnant, lactating and juvenile bats indicates that their major birth peaks coincide with the time of greatest cave visitation annually, particularly for domestic visitors and namely during the Cambodian new year in April. They also reflect rainfall patterns and correspond with the reproductive phenology of insectivorous cave bats in Vietnam. These findings were predictable because 1) insect biomass and thus food availability for insectivorous bats are optimal for ensuring survival of young following this period, and 2) the Khmer new year is the most significant month for religious ceremonies and thus domestic cave visitation nationally, due to the abundance of Buddhist shrines and temples in Cambodian caves. While the impact of visitor disturbance on bat population recruitment cannot be empirically assessed due to lack of historical data, it is nonetheless likely to have been considerable and raises a conservation concern. Further, because growing evidence suggests that insectivorous cave bats exhibit reproductive synchrony across continental Southeast Asia where countless cave shrines are heavily frequented during April in Theravada Buddhist countries (e.g., Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos), our results may have wider applicability in the region. We consequently advocate for increased emphasis on sustainable cave management practices in Cambodia and further investigations to determine whether our findings present a broader concern for cave bat conservation in Southeast Asia

Mean monthly visitation to Vihear-Tuk Bonn cave (Chhngauk hill, southern Cambodia) and mean monthly international arrivals in Cambodia from January 2007 to May 2014.

<p>Vertical whiskers represent standard deviations.</p

Insectivorous bat reproduction and human cave visitation in Cambodia: A perfect conservation storm? - Fig 2

<p><b>Reproduction of a) <i>Hipposideros larvatus</i> s.l. and b) <i>Taphozous melanopogon</i> at Chhngauk hill from February 2014 to January 2016 in relation to monthly rainfall (44 year means) in southern Cambodia.</b> The first row of figures below each graph represents the total number of parous, pregnant and lactating females caught each month and the second row represents the same for juveniles. The ‘pregnant’ category is confined to non-lactating pregnant bats, while the ‘lactation’ category includes all lactating bats, whether pregnant or not. Relative proportions for juveniles were derived by dividing the respective monthly total by the study total × 100. The figures are based upon captures of a) 178 bats and b) 131 bats, and data from the same month in each study year are combined for each species.</p

Location of Chhngauk hill in southern Cambodia.

<p>Location of Chhngauk hill in southern Cambodia.</p

Annual visitation to Vihear-Tuk Bonn cave (Chhngauk hill, southern Cambodia) from January 2007 to December 2013.

<p>Annual visitation to Vihear-Tuk Bonn cave (Chhngauk hill, southern Cambodia) from January 2007 to December 2013.</p

Correction: Understanding the prevalence of bear part consumption in Cambodia: A comparison of specialised questioning techniques.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211544.]