L’économie politique de la filière du charbon de bois à Kinshasa et à Lubumbashi

Charcoal use in urban Congo expanded significantly in the early 1990s. While recourse to charcoal (makala) as cooking fuel existed during the early independence period, most urban households had access to electricity for domestic use. Population, pressure, poorly maintained infrastructures and state crisis combined to force people to rely on makala for their daily cooking needs. Trade networks developed to make the link between makala producers and consumers. This can be considered as a popular response to state failure and is the subject of this working paper. Our research followed the trade network that includes charcoal producers, transporters, middlemen, wholesalers and retailers and a host of other peripheral supporting actors who claim to „live miraculously? from the network. The main conclusion of the research is that this informal trade network thrives, despite hassles from state agents, because it provides a vital service to Congo's urban poor.

Changing Patterns of Solidarity in Kinshasa

Ethnic based solidarity systems facilitated the integration of rural migrants into the intricacies of «modem» urban life throughout much of Africa. Now that these cities have become increasingly ungoverned and ungovernable, new forms of solidarity systems have emerged. The multiform crisis in Kinshasa, sub-Saharan Africa's second largest city, is as legendary as the survival strategies invented by the Congo capital's residents. These systems, historically complex, are increasingly characterised by pragmatism. Despite the marked rise of individualism needed to «fend for oneself», without recourse to solidarity networks, the situation of Kinois would be even more precarious than it is today. This article documents these dynamic forms of social organisation, their origins and evolution and the local and international political context that has contributed to their perpetual re-invention.Os sistemas de solidariedade baseados na etnicidade favoreceram a integração dos migrantes rurais no emaranhado da vida modema em muitas cidades africanas. Na medida em que estas cidades sao cada vez menos govemadas e govemaveis, regista-se a emergencia de novos sistemas de solidariedade que representam a ordem na desordem. Em Kinshasa, a segunda cidade ao Sui do Saara, a crise multifacetada e tao lendciria como as estrategias de sobrevivencia imaginadas pelos que nela residem. Historicamente complexos, estes sistemas caracterizam-se cada vez mais pela necessidade de as pessoas serem pragmaticas: ninguem pode doravante dar-se ao luxo de partilhar sem a esperança de algum retorno. Apesar do individualismo que dai resulta, as multiplas redes de solidariedade sao indispensaveis, porque sem elas a situação dois «kinois» seria ainda mais dramática. O presente artigo procura descrever esta forma dinfunica de organizaçao social, as suas origens e a sua evolução num contexto politico local e intemacional que contribui para a sua re-invenção permanente.Les systèmes de solidarité basés sur l'ethnicité ont favorisé I’intégration des migrants ruraux dans les dédales de la vie moderne dans beaucoup de villes africaines. Au fur et à mesure que ces villes deviennent de plus en plus ingouvernées et ingouvernables, on assiste à l'émergence de nouveaux systèmes de solidarité qui représentent l'ordre dans le désordre. A Kinshasa, deuxième ville au sud du Sahara, la crise multiforme est aussi légendaire que les stratégies de survie mises en place par ses résidants. Historiquement complexes, ces systèmes se caractérisent de plus en plus par le besoin d'être pragmatique - on ne peut plus se permettre de partager sans l'espoir d'un retour. Malgré la tendance individualiste qui en résulte, les multiples réseaux de solidarité sont indispensables, car sans eux la situation des kinois serait encore plus dramatique qu'elle ne l'est aujourd'hui. Cet article vise à faire connaitre cette forme dynamique d'organisation sociale, ses origines, son évolution et le contexte politique local et international qui contribuent à sa perpétuelle ré-invention

Forest governance in Congo: Corruption rules?

Innovative management of the Democratic Republic of Congo’s (DRC) forests is an international priority. It is important to promote socio-economic wellbeing and biodiversity conservation. It is also crucial to address global climate change and could provide significant revenues to the national budget. But recent forestry codes and initiatives have not achieved expected results: corruption and mismanagement partly explain why. Forest governance – and environmental governance in general – refers to the way competing stakeholders vie for power over nature in an arena often riddled with rivalry and mistrust. This U4 Brief presents the background and analysis needed by international donors to understand the governance challenges in designing and implementing strategies for New Environmental Services. 1 Given Congo’s history of entrenched corruption at all levels of society and government, this Brief addresses whether the political, institutional and social environment is conducive to improved forest governance

Gouvernance forestière au Congo : le règne de la corruption ?

La gestion innovante des forêts de la République démocratique du Congo (RDC) constitue une priorité internationale. Elle est importante pour la promotion du bien-être socio-économique et la protection de la biodiversité et essentielle pour lutter contre le changement climatique à l’échelle mondiale. Elle pourrait également représenter une source potentielle non négligeable de recettes nationales. Cependant, les codes et initiatives forestiers récents n’ont pas atteint les résultats escomptés, notamment pour cause de corruption et de mauvaise gestion. La gouvernance forestière – et plus généralement, la gouvernance environnementale –, renvoie à la façon dont les parties prenantes concurrentes se disputent le pouvoir sur la nature dans un secteur où dominent souvent rivalité et méfiance. Cette note de synthèse U4 situe le contexte et fournit l’analyse dont les donateurs internationaux ont besoin pour comprendre les défis en matière de gouvernance dans l’élaboration et la mise en oeuvre de stratégies pour les Nouveaux Services Environnementaux

La Gestion des Ressources Naturelles dans les Zones Périurbaines d’Afrique Centrale : une approche privilégiant les parties prenantes

O presente artigo apresenta o quadro conceptual e os primeiros resultados de um es­tudo em curso sobre processos de gestão de recursos naturais, em espaços peri-urbanos da África Central. Com base em dados etnográficos das realidades empíricas de Kinshasa e Lubumbashi (República Democrática do Congo) e de Brazzaville (República do Congo), o texto analisa sobretudo os conceitos de «governação ambiental» e de «espaço peri-urbano», partindo das lógicas dos próprios protagonistas envolvidos na gestão dos re­cursos naturais. Deste modo, são exploradas as ambiguidades, ambivalências, relações de poder e tensões sociais geradas ou sustentadas por certas peculiaridades dos jogos de poder que envolvem os diferentes actores sociais considerados.The article presents a conceptual framework and the first results of an ongoing research on processes of natural resources management in peri-urban areas of Central Africa. Based on ethnographic data from the empirical realities of Kinshasa and Lubumbashi (Democratic Republic of Congo) and of Brazzaville (Republic of Congo), the text analyses especially the concepts of «environmental governance» and «peri-urban spaces», based on the logics of the very protagonists involved in the natural resources management. This way, the text explores the ambiguities, ambivalences, power relations and social tensions generated or sustained by certain peculiarities of the power strategies in which these social actors are involved

La gestion des ressources naturelles dans les zones périurbaines d’Afrique Centrale : une approche privilégiant les parties prenantes

O presente artigo apresenta o quadro conceptual e os primeiros resultados de um estudo em curso sobre processos de gestão de recursos naturais, em espaços peri-urbanos da África Central. Com base em dados etnográficos das realidades empíricas de Kinshasa e Lubumbashi (República Democrática do Congo) e de Brazzaville (República do Congo), o texto analisa sobretudo os conceitos de «governação ambiental» e de «espaço peri- urbano», partindo das lógicas dos próprios protagonistas envolvidos na gestão dos recursos naturais. Deste modo, são exploradas as ambiguidades, ambivalências, relações de poder e tensões sociais geradas ou sustentadas por certas peculiaridades dos jogos de poder que envolvem os diferentes actores sociais considerados.The article presents a conceptual framework and the first results of an ongoing research on processes of natural resources management in peri-urban areas of Central Africa. Based on ethnographic data from the empirical realities of Kinshasa and Lubumbashi (Democratic Republic of Congo) and of Brazzaville (Republic of Congo), the text analyses especially the concepts of «environmental governance» and «peri-urban spaces», based on the logics of the very protagonists involved in the natural resources management. This way, the text explores the ambiguities, ambivalences, power relations and social tensions generated or sustained by certain peculiarities of the power strategies in which these social actors are involved

Introduction

Véritable paradigme d’une Afrique confrontée aux affres de la guerre, au délitement de l’Etat et à l’informalisation économique, le Congo cumule apparemment tous les obstacles à la conduite de recherches de terrain répondant aux canons méthodologiques des différentes disciplines. Depuis le renouveau de la réflexion épistémologique des années 1980 – qu’illustre bien l’ouvrage de Clifford et Marcus (1986) – les démarches de recherche font l’objet d’une vigilance critique nettement plus approfon..

Wood: An ever present domestic energy priority for people in emerging Africa

Wood-energy in Africa (including charcoal) mainly meets domestic energy needs as there are no specific wood cultivation projects dedicated to supplying industrial energy plants. We shall describe how this informal but highly organized sector operates, covering the entire process moving from the standing tree to the kitchen oven. We also shall present some basic data showing the significance of increasing needs and consumption, especially in urban areas, with regard to rapidly depleting natural resources. Some examples of contrasting situations in Africa will highlight the diverse issues raised by wood energy. An analysis of the situation in 16 African towns will show different solutions to the pressures generated by domestic energy needs. Other examples will present two pathways of natural resource degradation (in Guinea and DRC) induced by the supply of wood energy to large cities. In most African countries, the use of wood for domestic energy involves multiple, interacting issues.The wood mainly comes from degraded natural forests (e.g. shifting cultivation) and is generally produced within traditional agricultural systems. The demand grows continuously, due to ever increasing populations domestic needs. We will address the relations between wood energy and environmental and social issues, and examine the economic weight of the sector. Finally, we shall indicate some institutional and governance means to address (or not) the populations' domestic energy needs. The sustainable management of wood-energy resources is possible and is one of the keys for the future. We shall present some results of the Makala project, an EU funded programme in DRC and Congo Brazzaville, from 2008 to 2014 (1). The project has developed on a large scale various operational tools for a sustainable wood resource management. These range from simplified, but efficient, management planning for rural communities, to various methods to create or regenerate a large area producing wood resources through the natural regeneration of degraded forests, agroforestry systems, or the plantation of fast-growing species. Achieving a more efficient carbonization process is another important issue. The feasibility of improved stoves also will be discussed. Given that urban population growth will in many cases lead to an increase in household energy requirements which will surpass what can be provided by tree formations, the authors argue that planners should consider the development of energy mixes that combine the sustainable production of wood-energy with a partial transition to other energy sources (fossil, hydro-electricity, solar or biomass). The importance of the carbon economy will also be discussed by examining some international processes as REDD initiative or Green Fund for the Climate (UN). Finally, some conclusions from a recent prospective analysis of Central African forest ecosystems will focus on the evolution dynamics, expected impacts and strategic actions able to address positively the wood-energy challenges that will face Africa in the future

Savoirs locaux sur les pratiques culturales du caféier robusta et représentations des communautés locales sur le café en Province de la Tshopo (République Démocratique du Congo)

La non-utilisation des savoirs locaux peut affecter l'acceptabilité sociale des programmes. Cette étude évalue l'utilisation des savoirs locaux dans la caféiculture pour l'acceptation sociale des programmes d’atténuation des changements climatiques et la conservation de la biodiversité. Cent-huit caféiculteurs de robusta ont été enquêtés dans les sept territoires de la province de la Tshopo. La collecte des données s’est intéressée autant à la connaissance des pratiques culturales de caféier qu’à la représentation de caféier et/ou de café dans le quotidien des caféiculteurs. Les observations directes ont été associées à une interview, sous forme de récit de vie semi-structurée dans une application KoBoCollect via un Android. Les résultats ont montré que certaines techniques de la caféiculture consistent à diminuer la déforestation et ses impacts sur l’environnement. Le caféier est une source de revenus et une boisson stimulante par ses grains. La décoction de ses feuilles est utilisée en médecine traditionnelle. L’agroforesterie est conçue comme une stratégie de la résilience grâce à la diversification des services écosystémiques liée à l’agriculture et à la forêt.   The non-use of local knowledge may affect the social acceptability of programs. This study assesses the use of local knowledge in coffee farming for the social acceptance of climate change mitigation programs and biodiversity conservation.. One hundred and eight Robusta coffee farmers were interviewed in the seven territories of Tshopo Province. Data collection focused on knowledge of coffee growing practices as well as the representation of coffee and/or coffee trees in farmers' daily lives. Direct observation was combined with an interview in the form of a semi-structured life story in a KoBoCollect application via Android. The results showed that certain coffee-growing techniques can reduce deforestation and its impact on the environment. They contribute to the biological and natural regulation of the agroecosystem. The coffee tree is a source of income and a stimulating drink thanks to its beans. The decoction of its leaves is used in traditional medicine. Agroforestry is conceived as a resilience strategy thanks to the diversification of ecosystem services linked to agriculture

Savoirs locaux sur les pratiques culturales du caféier robusta et représentations des communautés locales sur le café en Province de la Tshopo (République Démocratique du Congo)

La non-utilisation des savoirs locaux peut affecter l'acceptabilité sociale des programmes. Cette étude évalue l'utilisation des savoirs locaux dans la caféiculture pour l'acceptation sociale des programmes d’atténuation des changements climatiques et la conservation de la biodiversité. Cent-huit caféiculteurs de robusta ont été enquêtés dans les sept territoires de la province de la Tshopo. La collecte des données s’est intéressée autant à la connaissance des pratiques culturales de caféier qu’à la représentation de caféier et/ou de café dans le quotidien des caféiculteurs. Les observations directes ont été associées à une interview, sous forme de récit de vie semi-structurée dans une application KoBoCollect via un Android. Les résultats ont montré que certaines techniques de la caféiculture consistent à diminuer la déforestation et ses impacts sur l’environnement. Le caféier est une source de revenus et une boisson stimulante par ses grains. La décoction de ses feuilles est utilisée en médecine traditionnelle. L’agroforesterie est conçue comme une stratégie de la résilience grâce à la diversification des services écosystémiques liée à l’agriculture et à la forêt.   The non-use of local knowledge may affect the social acceptability of programs. This study assesses the use of local knowledge in coffee farming for the social acceptance of climate change mitigation programs and biodiversity conservation.. One hundred and eight Robusta coffee farmers were interviewed in the seven territories of Tshopo Province. Data collection focused on knowledge of coffee growing practices as well as the representation of coffee and/or coffee trees in farmers' daily lives. Direct observation was combined with an interview in the form of a semi-structured life story in a KoBoCollect application via Android. The results showed that certain coffee-growing techniques can reduce deforestation and its impact on the environment. They contribute to the biological and natural regulation of the agroecosystem. The coffee tree is a source of income and a stimulating drink thanks to its beans. The decoction of its leaves is used in traditional medicine. Agroforestry is conceived as a resilience strategy thanks to the diversification of ecosystem services linked to agriculture