Scientific inquiry in TIMSS and PISA 2015: Inquiry as an instructional approach and the assessment of inquiry as an instructional outcome in science

This article-based thesis draws on research in the fields of science education and international large-scale assessments. It investigates theoretical, methodological, and empirical aspects of inquiry as an instructional approach (means) and the assessment of inquiry as an instructional outcome (ends). The empirical investigations used latent variable modeling in order to analyze data from student and teacher questionnaires, student assessment, and student log files in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015. Article 1 focuses on inquiry as an instructional approach and outcome by exploring the relationship between inquiry-based science teaching and student achievement in science. This article attempts to resolve conflicting findings of inquiry–achievement relationships by demonstrating the existence of curvilinear rather than linear patterns, as previously assumed. Article 2 addresses the research gaps in comparing inquiry as an instructional approach between primary and secondary education. It examines the interplay between teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching science and perceived time constraints in explaining the opportunities for students to engage in cognitively challenging learning activities in Grades 4, 5, 8, and 9. Article 3 presents an investigation on the assessment of inquiry as an instructional outcome. It identifies distinct profiles of students’ performance on simulated inquiry tasks that require the skills to coordinate the effects of multiple variables and to coordinate theory with evidence. While Article 3 takes a micro approach, focusing on specific scientific inquiry skills, Article 4 explores inquiry as an instructional outcome from a macro approach, taking into account a range of formal and informal reasoning skills students need to acquire in order to participate in inquiry practice. This article argues for the importance of assessing formal and informal reasoning and provides a short overview on utilizing the potential of computer-based assessments to assess both types of reasoning. Taken together, the findings presented in this thesis advance the existing knowledge about the important distinction and role of inquiry as a means and an end in science education. This thesis argues that, to understand inquiry in a comprehensive context, it is essential to consider the relationships of the data gathered from various sources: the input, process, and output of inquiry. This study contributes to inform the ongoing science education reform in Norway and to improve the assessment of inquiry as an instructional approach and outcome in international large-scale assessments

Inquiry in science education

Inquiry has played a major role in the past and present science education reforms around the world. Despite a great number of studies leveraging TIMSS and PISA data to investigate inquiry in science education, there is little effort to synthesize their findings. The present study aims to systematically review how TIMSS and PISA data were used to investigate inquiry and discuss how the findings contributed to the overall research on inquiry in science education. Patterns and findings from the TIMSS and PISA research were synthesized across the three strands of inquiry research to identify the relevant factors that explain (1) teachers’ frequent implementation of inquiry as an instructional approach, (2) students’ performance in inquiry or inquiry as an instructional outcome, and (3) the relationships between inquiry as an instructional approach and outcome. Findings indicated that the majority of the studies emphasized the third strand of inquiry research by examining the relationships between inquiry and student achievement. Although these studies used similar data, their conceptualizations and measurements of inquiry as an instructional approach varied considerably. This review provides an overview of the assessment of inquiry in TIMSS and PISA targeted to science education researchers who are unfamiliar with this field in the hope of encouraging them to utilize these data. It also encourages other researchers to reflect upon the knowledge gained from harnessing TIMSS and PISA data as well as the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead

More Isn’t Always Better: The Curvilinear Relationship between Inquiry-Based Teaching and Student Achievement in Science

Previous studies have assumed a linear relationship between inquiry-based teaching and student achievement in science. However this assumption may be questionable. Recent evidence on the effectiveness of inquiry-based teaching has yielded conflicting findings. To test the linearity assumption, the present study investigated the relation between inquiry-based teaching and achievement by taking into account the possible existence of nonlinear relations using Norwegian TIMSS 2015 data. A multilevel structural equation modeling analysis showed that the relationship was curvilinear. Inquiry-based teaching was positively correlated with achievement, but high frequency of inquiry activities was negatively related to achievement. Furthermore, we found that classroom SES did not affect the strength of the relationship between inquiry and achievement. These findings challenge the linearity assumption and contribute to explaining the conflicting evidence in earlier research as well as promote the effectiveness of inquiry-based teaching regardless of students’ socioeconomic backgrounds

I Know I Can, but Do I Have the Time? The Role of Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Perceived Time Constraints in Implementing Cognitive-Activation Strategies in Science

Considerable research has demonstrated that teachers’ self-efficacy plays a major role in implementing instructional practices. Only few studies, however, have examined the interplay between how teachers’ self-efficacy and the challenges that lie outside their influence are related to their implementation of cognitive-activation strategies (CASs), especially in science classrooms. Using the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study 2015 data from science teachers in Grades 4, 5, 8, and 9, we explored the extent to which teachers’ self-efficacy in science teaching and the perceived time constraints explained variations in the enactment of general and inquiry-based CAS. Findings from the overall sample showed that highly self-efficacious teachers reported more frequent implementation of both general and inquiry-based CAS, whereas those who perceived strong time constraints reported a less frequent use of inquiry-based CAS. These relationships also existed across grade levels, except on the relations between perceived time constraint and inquiry-based CAS, which was only significant for the science teachers in Grade 9. We discuss these findings in light of variations in the core competencies of science curriculum, teachers’ competences, and the resources for science activities between primary and secondary education. We also point to the theoretical implications of this study for enhancing the conceptual understanding of generic and specific aspects of CAS and the practical implications for teacher education, professional development, and educational policy

Identifying patterns of students' performance on simulated inquiry tasks using PISA 2015 log‐file data

Previous research has demonstrated the potential of examining log‐file data from computer‐based assessments to understand student interactions with complex inquiry tasks. Rather than solely providing information about what has been achieved or the accuracy of student responses (product data), students' log files offer additional insights into how the responses were produced (process data). In this study, we examined students' log files to detect patterns of students' interactions with computer‐based assessment and to determine whether unique characteristics of these interactions emerge as distinct profiles of inquiry performance. Knowledge about the characteristics of these profiles can shed light on why some students are more successful at solving simulated inquiry tasks than others and how to support student understanding of scientific inquiry through computer‐based environments. We analyzed the Norwegian PISA 2015 log‐file data, science performance as well as background questionnaire (N = 1,222 students) by focusing on two inquiry tasks, which required scientific reasoning skills: coordinating the effects of multiple variables and coordinating theory and evidence. Using a mixture modeling approach, we identified three distinct profiles of students' inquiry performance: strategic, emergent, and disengaged. These profiles revealed different characteristics of students' exploration behavior, inquiry strategy, time‐on‐task, and item accuracy. Further analyses showed that students' assignment to these profiles varied according to their demographic characteristics (gender, socio‐economic status, and language at home), attitudes (enjoyment in science, self‐efficacy, and test anxiety), and science achievement. Although students' profiles on the two inquiry tasks were significantly related, we also found some variations in the proportion of students' transitions between profiles. Our study contributes to understanding how students interact with complex simulated inquiry tasks and showcases how log‐file data from PISA 2015 can aid this understanding

A systematic review of studies investigating science teaching and learning: Over two decades of TIMSS and PISA

A great number of studies have investigated science teaching and learning (STL) using data from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Nevertheless, there is little effort to synthesise these studies. Reviewing the status of research on STL, including the trends, approaches, and findings is crucial for identifying research gaps that require greater attention. Consequently, this review synthesises empirical studies investigating STL using TIMSS and PISA. First, we mapped their characteristics based on the aims, data, STL measures, and research approaches. Second, patterns of the findings were summarized by focusing on the (1) relationships between STL and student outcomes; (2) factors that explain STL variation; and (3) patterns of STL. Most studies examined STL related to inquiry activities and their relationships to student outcomes. Their findings were largely inconsistent and could be traced back to different ways STL was conceptualized and measured. This review calls for the studies examining TIMSS and PISA data to enhance the quality of research approaches and clarity in reporting them. It also encourages researchers to reflect upon the knowledge gained from harnessing these data to examine STL and discusses the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead

Gir utforskende arbeidsmåter i naturfag bedre læringsutbytte?

Flere internasjonale studier har funnet en positiv sammenheng mellom utforskende arbeidsmåter og elevers læringsutbytte, men nesten ingen studier har tidligere undersøkt dette med utgangspunkt i representative norske data. Data fra TIMSS 2019-studien ble analysert med flernivå strukturell ligningsmodellering for å undersøke sammenhenger mellom utforskende arbeidsmåter og prestasjoner og motivasjon på 9. trinn. Resultatene viser en sterk sammenheng mellom utforskende arbeidsmåter og motivasjon for naturfag og en middels sterk sammenheng mellom utforskende arbeidsmåter og faglige prestasjoner

A systematic review of studies investigating science teaching and learning: over two decades of TIMSS and PISA

A great number of studies have investigated science teaching and learning (STL) using data from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Nevertheless, there is little effort to synthesise these studies. Reviewing the status of research on STL, including the trends, approaches, and findings is crucial for identifying research gaps that require greater attention. Consequently, this review synthesises empirical studies investigating STL using TIMSS and PISA. First, we mapped their characteristics based on the aims, data, STL measures, and research approaches. Second, patterns of the findings were summarized by focusing on the (1) relationships between STL and student outcomes; (2) factors that explain STL variation; and (3) patterns of STL. Most studies examined STL related to inquiry activities and their relationships to student outcomes. Their findings were largely inconsistent and could be traced back to different ways STL was conceptualized and measured. This review calls for the studies examining TIMSS and PISA data to enhance the quality of research approaches and clarity in reporting them. It also encourages researchers to reflect upon the knowledge gained from harnessing these data to examine STL and discusses the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead.</p