Predictors of differences in adolescent adiposity trends and weight-related behaviors among states in the United States

Background: Many states took legislative action to reduce youth obesity in recent years. A "plateau" in youth obesity from 1999 to 2006 was found in a nationally representative sample, leading to speculation that policies have been effective, but the impact of state policies has not been extensively studied. Legislative activity and youth obesity vary by state, suggesting that the national plateau in youth obesity may not be particularized to all states. Objectives: To estimate between-state variation in time trends of adolescent adiposity and weight-related behaviors, and the association between state policy changes and adolescent soda consumption and adiposity. Methods: Mixed models estimated between-state variation in time trends of body mass index (BMI) percentile and several diet and physical activity behaviors, using cross-sectional data from 272,044 students in 29 states in the 2001, 2003, 2005, and 2007 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. A state-level case-control analysis compared states with disparate trends with respect to behavioral, demographic, and contextual changes. Using data from the 2000 and 2006 School Health Policies and Programs Study, mixed models estimated the association between state policy changes targeting junk food in schools and 2007 soda consumption and BMI percentile, and tested for racial/ethnic differences in the association. Results: State BMI percentile trends were similar despite differences in state behavioral trends. Boys experienced a modest linear increase in BMI percentile ([Beta] = 0.18, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.07, 0.30) and girls experienced a non-linear increase that suggested a decelerating trend ([Beta}linear = 1.10, [Beta]quad = -0.08). TV viewing was the only behavior associated with BMI percentile among students and BMI percentile time trends across states. Policy changes were associated with lower soda consumption among non-Hispanic Blacks ([less than or equal to]1.33 fewer servings/week), but not with BMI percentile among any racial/ethnic group. Conclusion: State policy changes may have affected student behaviors, but not sufficiently to affect adiposity. Adolescent adiposity increased across states in 2001-2007, particularly among girls. Students may compensate for isolated policy changes through behaviors outside of school and environmental factors beyond a school's jurisdiction (e.g., TV marketing). Future research should explore the effect of comprehensive policy change across sectors

The spatial distribution of gender differences in obesity prevalence differs from overall obesity prevalence among US adults

While obesity disparities between racial and socioeconomic groups have been well characterized, those based on gender and geography have not been as thoroughly documented. This study describes obesity prevalence by state, gender, and race/ethnicity to (1) characterize obesity gender inequality, (2) determine if the geographic distribution of inequality is spatially clustered and (3) contrast the spatial clustering patterns of obesity gender inequality with overall obesity prevalence

How State Taxes and Policies Targeting Soda Consumption Modify the Association between School Vending Machines and Student Dietary Behaviors: A Cross-Sectional Analysis

Background: Sodas are widely sold in vending machines and other school venues in the United States, particularly in high school. Research suggests that policy changes have reduced soda access, but the impact of reduced access on consumption is unclear. This study was designed to identify student, environmental, or policy characteristics that modify the associations between school vending machines and student dietary behaviors. Methods: Data on school vending machine access and student diet were obtained as part of the National Youth Physical Activity and Nutrition Study (NYPANS) and linked to state-level data on soda taxes, restaurant taxes, and state laws governing the sale of soda in schools. Regression models were used to: 1) estimate associations between vending machine access and soda consumption, fast food consumption, and lunch source, and 2) determine if associations were modified by state soda taxes, restaurant taxes, laws banning in-school soda sales, or student characteristics (race/ethnicity, sex, home food access, weight loss behaviors.) Results: Contrary to the hypothesis, students tended to consume 0.53 fewer servings of soda/week (95% CI: -1.17, 0.11) and consume fast food on 0.24 fewer days/week (95% CI: -0.44, -0.05) if they had in-school access to vending machines. They were also less likely to consume soda daily (23.9% vs. 27.9%, average difference = -4.02, 95% CI: -7.28, -0.76). However, these inverse associations were observed primarily among states with lower soda and restaurant tax rates (relative to general food tax rates) and states that did not ban in-school soda sales. Associations did not vary by any student characteristics except for weight loss behaviors. Conclusion: Isolated changes to the school food environment may have unintended consequences unless policymakers incorporate other initiatives designed to discourage overall soda consumption

State Disparities in Time Trends of Adolescent Body Mass Index Percentile and Weight-Related Behaviors in the United States

Evidence is conflicting as to whether youth obesity prevalence has reached a plateau in the United States overall. Trends vary by state, and experts recommend exploring whether trends in weight-related behaviors are associated with changes in weight status trends. Thus, our objective was to estimate between-state variation in time trends of adolescent body mass index (BMI) percentile and weight-related behaviors from 2001 to 2007. A time series design combined cross-sectional Youth Risk Behavior Survey data from 272,044 adolescents in 29 states from 2001 to 2007. Self-reported height, weight, sports participation, physical education, television viewing, and daily consumption of 100% fruit juice, milk, and fruits and vegetables were collected. Linear mixed models estimated state variance in time trends of behaviors and BMI percentile. Across states, BMI percentile trends were consistent despite differences in behavioral trends. Boys experienced a modest linear increase in BMI percentile (β = 0.18, 95% CI: 0.07, 0.30); girls experienced a non-linear increase, as the rate of increase declined over time from 1.02 units in 2001–2002 (95% CI: 0.68, 1.36) to 0.23 units in 2006–2007 (95% CI: −0.09, 0.56). States in which BMI percentile decreased experienced a greater decrease in TV viewing than states where BMI percentile increased. Otherwise, states with disparate BMI percentile trends did not differ with respect to behaviors. Future research should explore the role of other behaviors (e.g., soda consumption), measurement units (e.g., portion size), and societal trends (e.g., urban sprawl) on state and national adiposity trends

Socioeconomic Differences in the Association Between Competitive Food Laws and the School Food Environment

Schools of low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to sell fewer healthy competitive foods/beverages. This study examined whether state competitive food laws may reduce such disparities

State Policies Targeting Junk Food in Schools: Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Effect of Policy Change on Soda Consumption

Objectives. We estimated the association between state policy changes and adolescent soda consumption and body mass index (BMI) percentile, overall and by race/ethnicity

Association between School- and Nonschool-Based Activity Programs and Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls

Some researchers have questioned if activity programs would be more effective if based outside school (eg, community leagues) rather than within schools. This study compared participation in activity programs based within and outside of school, and estimated the associations between participation and moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among adolescent girls

The Effect of a Physical Activity Intervention on Bias in Self-Reported Activity

A positive outcome in self-reported behavior could be detected erroneously if an intervention caused over-reporting of the targeted behavior. Data collected from a multi-site randomized trial were examined to determine if adolescent girls who received a physical activity intervention over-reported their activity more than girls who received no intervention

Genes, Education, and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study

Recent advances have led to the discovery of specific genetic variants that predict educational attainment. We study how these variants, summarized as a genetic score variable, are associated with human capital accumulation and labor market outcomes in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). We demonstrate that the same genetic score that predicts education is also associated with higher wages, but only among individuals with a college education. Moreover, the genetic gradient in wages has grown in more recent birth cohorts, consistent with interactions between technological change and labor market ability. We also show that individuals who grew up in economically disadvantaged households are less likely to go to college when compared to individuals with the same genetic score, but from higher socioeconomic status households. Our findings provide support for the idea that childhood socioeconomic status is an important moderator of the economic returns to genetic endowments. Moreover, the finding that childhood poverty limits the educational attainment of high-ability individuals suggests the existence of unrealized human potential

Expert range maps of global mammal distributions harmonised to three taxonomic authorities

AimComprehensive, global information on species' occurrences is an essential biodiversity variable and central to a range of applications in ecology, evolution, biogeography and conservation. Expert range maps often represent a species' only available distributional information and play an increasing role in conservation assessments and macroecology. We provide global range maps for the native ranges of all extant mammal species harmonised to the taxonomy of the Mammal Diversity Database (MDD) mobilised from two sources, the Handbook of the Mammals of the World (HMW) and the Illustrated Checklist of the Mammals of the World (CMW).LocationGlobal.TaxonAll extant mammal species.MethodsRange maps were digitally interpreted, georeferenced, error-checked and subsequently taxonomically aligned between the HMW (6253 species), the CMW (6431 species) and the MDD taxonomies (6362 species).ResultsRange maps can be evaluated and visualised in an online map browser at Map of Life (mol.org) and accessed for individual or batch download for non-commercial use.Main conclusionExpert maps of species' global distributions are limited in their spatial detail and temporal specificity, but form a useful basis for broad-scale characterizations and model-based integration with other data. We provide georeferenced range maps for the native ranges of all extant mammal species as shapefiles, with species-level metadata and source information packaged together in geodatabase format. Across the three taxonomic sources our maps entail, there are 1784 taxonomic name differences compared to the maps currently available on the IUCN Red List website. The expert maps provided here are harmonised to the MDD taxonomic authority and linked to a community of online tools that will enable transparent future updates and version control