Between the School and Labour Market. Rural Areas and Rural Youth in Poland, Romania and Russia

The article analyses the process of rural youth entering the labour market in selected post-communist countries (Poland, Romania and Russia). Based on different types of local (national) and international source data, similarities and differences are discussed between the analysed countries. The article focuses on transition from education to a satisfactory job, nowadays a very complex process that takes up nearly the entire third decade of young people’s life. Although this process is just an external manifestation of general changes occurring in labour markets around the world, the experience of young people from post-communist countries in this area seems to be more traumatic than that of their peers in developed Western countries. Despite significant investments in education, it is difficult to deal with new challenges, particularly for the youth from rural areas. In all the analysed countries, chaotic career paths are typical of this population, and they are often based on temporary jobs, informal forms of employment or self-employment

Looking for a specificity of Rural Youth. The Polish Case

In social consciousness a view is embedded that our rural and agrarian areas are our weakness which limits our development potential and social change. Whatever the reasons (mostly historical) for this view, the divide into rural and urban areas, Poland A and Poland B, is frequently referred to and just as frequently exaggerated, supporting thus various stereotypes and prejudices. Do they also concern the young generation? Rural areas in Poland are subject to dynamic transformation. The image of rural areas and its reception across society is changing positively. The favourable balance between migration and a growing interest among young people in the countryside as a future place of residence can be used as an example. However, this does not mean that the problem of rural areas and regional differences in Poland has been resolved. Neither do the changes happen as rapidly as could have been expected, nor do they happen in parallel in terms of geography and social structure. Not all of them are positive. The large number of small farms (although land concentration was expected in agriculture) is disturbing. The succession to economically weak farmsteads (which shows that in the face of no employment and non-agricultural life prospects an economically non-viable farm seems – from an individual perspective – the best possible solution). This phenomenon gives rise to many questions. Here, we only want to discuss the questions concerning the young generation – whether their aspirations and life goals, educational decisions, places of residence can be conducive to change (inside and outside rural areas) or rather impede them

Spatial mobility as a carrier of cultural capital:an analysis based on a longitudinal study of generations

For many years international migrations have been the primary focus of spatial mobility research, whereas internal migrations – occurring within one state – have aroused significantly less interest. However, the latter are not only an important complement to the former, but they also seem to have a much greater impact on the domestic affairs of the state. For example, internal migrations engage the resources (intellectual, cultural, social) of much wider cohorts of people who therefore become, with varying degrees of significance, agents of social changes. This article presents an analysis of the spatial mobility of two generations monitored during a 45-year-long longitudinal research project. Its broad time perspective makes it possible to analyse not only the net changes with regard to the place of residence, a typical focus of migration studies, but also gross changes (migration flows). The aim of this article is to determine the scale and the social embeddedness of the migration flows in both generations. It is assumed that, due to differences in generational biographies and resources, as well as changes in the quality of life in rural areas compared to urban areas, migrations in both generations, even though occurring at the same stages of life, are different. As a result, the resources contributed by migrants to their new places of residence also carry a different quality

"Jugend 2011" - der Regierungsbericht über die junge Generation der Polen

Der Regierungsbericht "Młodzi 2011" ("Jugend 2011") stellt den Versuch dar, die junge Generation zu porträtieren, die das kommunistische Polen nicht erlebt hat und in der Transformationsphase nach 1989 aufgewachsen ist. Die Mehrheit der Jugend kennzeichnet der beispiellose Anstieg der Ambitionen in Sachen Bildung und Status, hohe Erwartungen an das Lebensniveau, Optimismus, Pragmatismus und eine aktive Lebenshaltung. Allerdings hatte der Massenkonsum von höherer Bildung zur Folge, dass die Bildungsabschlüsse ab- bzw. neubewertet werden. Dies sowie eine hohe Arbeitslosigkeit in der jungen Generation, befristete Arbeitsverträge, unflexible Arbeitszeiten und niedrige Einkommen für Berufsanfänger erschweren die Verwirklichung der beruflichen und persönlichen Pläne der jungen Polen. Sie gehören europaweit zu den aktivsten Nutzern der neuen Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien und wollen damit eine neue Form zivilgesellschaftlichen Engagements zeigen (z.B. in der ACTA-Bewegung). Obgleich die große Mehrheit der Meinung ist, dass es richtig war, 1989 das System zu verändern, zeigen Untersuchungen eine wachsende kritische Haltung gegenüber dem Zustand der polnischen Demokratie

Cardiovascular risk assessment, cardiovascular disease risk factors, and lung function parameters

Background: Decreased lung function is related to higher cardiovascular disease (CVD) incidence and mortality. However, little is known about the relationship between the risk factors of CVD and pulmonary function. Aim: The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors, the total CVD risk, and pulmonary function. Methods: The analysis included 4104 men and women aged 45 to 69 years, participants of the Polish part of the Health, Alcohol, and Psychosocial factors In Eastern Europe (HAPIEE) Project, who provided valid measurements of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC) using a Micro-Medical Microplus spirometer. The prevalence of CVD risk factors was defined as follows: hypertension (systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg or taking hypertension medication), diabetes (glucose ≥ 7.1 mmol/L or self-reported diabetes), and hypercholesterolaemia (total cholesterol ≥ 5 mmol/L or low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol ≥ 3 mmol/L or taking lipid lowering medication). Categories of total CVD risk were defined according to the 2016 European Guidelines on CVD prevention in clinical practice. The analysis of covariance was used to compare the lung function in the CVD risk factors and the total CVD risk categories. Results: Mean values of FEV1 and FVC, adjusted for age and height, were significantly higher in men than in women (3.02 L; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.96–3.08 L vs. 2.52 L; 95% CI 2.45–2.63 L for FEV1 and 3.62 L; 95% CI 3.56–3.69 L vs. 3.05 L; 95% CI 2.98–3.12 L for FVC). Obesity was significantly associated with FVC in men and women; it was associated with FEV1 only in men. Compared with participants with normal body mass index, obese men and women had 280 mL and 112 mL lower mean FVC, respectively. Men without hypertension had almost 100 mL higher mean FVC than those with hypertension. The difference in FVC in women was approximately 80 mL. Diabetes was associated with lower values of FVC in both sexes and with FEV1 in women. A significant negative trend was observed in the mean FVC and FEV1 by the considered CVD risk categories. Conclusions: Impaired lung function was associated with higher CVD risk, which could be explained partly by an adverse association between lung function and prevalence of obesity, hypertension, and diabetes.Wstęp: Upośledzenie funkcji oddechowych  jest związane z wyższym ryzykiem zachorowania i zgonu  z powodu chorób  sercowo-naczyniowych (ChSN). Jednak  wiedza dotycząca związku pomiędzy czynnikami ryzyka ChSN oraz ogólną oceną ryzyka sercowo-naczyniowego, a funkcjami oddechowymi nie jest pełna. Cel: Oszacowanie związku pomiędzy występowaniem czynników ryzyka ChSN oraz  całkowitym ryzykiem sercowo-naczyniowym a funkcjami oddechowymi. Metody: Do analizy zakwalifikowano 4104 mężczyzn i kobiet w wieku pomiędzy 45 a 69 lat, uczestników polskiej części badania HAPIEE (Health, Alcohol and Psychosocial factors In Eastern Europe), dla których uzyskano wiarygodne pomiary natężonej pojemności życiowej płuc (FVC) oraz  natężonej objętości wydechowej pierwszo-sekundowej (FEV1) przy użyciu aparatu Micro-Medical Microplus. Przyjęto następujące definicje czynników ryzyka: nadciśnienie tętnicze (SBP≥140 [mmHg] lub DBP≥90 [mmHg] lub przyjmowanie leków hipotensyjnych), cukrzyca (glukoza≥7,1[mmol/l] lub cukrzyca rozpoznana przez lekarza), hipercholesterolemia (cholesterol całkowity≥5 [mmol/l]  lub LDL-cholesterol≥3 [mmol/l] lub przyjmowanie leków hipolipemizujących). Kategorie całkowitego ryzyka sercowo-naczyniowego  zostały określone w oparciu o wytyczne ESC dotyczące prewencji chorób układu sercowo-naczyniowego w praktyce klinicznej w 2016 roku.. Do porównania funkcji oddechowych w kategoriach narażenia na czynniki ryzyka ChSN zastosowana została analiza kowariancji. Wyniki: Średnie wartości FEV1 oraz FVC standaryzowane do wieku oraz wzrostu były istotnie wyższe u mężczyzn w porównaniu do kobiet i wynosiły odpowiednio FEV1:3.02 L; 95% CI = 2,96–3,08 L vs. 2,52 L; 95% CI = 2,45–2,63 L;  FVC: 3,62 L: 95% CI= 3,56-3,69 L  vs.  3,05L; 95% CI= 2,98-3,12 L). Otyłość była istotnie związana z FVC u kobiet i mężczyzn, natomiast z FEV1 tylko u kobiet. W porównaniu do badanych o pożądanej masie ciała (BMI=20-25), otyli mężczyźni i kobiety (BMI>30) mieli niższe wartości FVC odpowiednio o 280 ml i 122 ml. Nadciśnienie tętnicze było istotnie związane z FEV1 i FVC. Mężczyźni z nadciśnieniem mieli o 100 ml niższe FVC w porównaniu do mężczyzn bez nadciśnienia. U kobiet różnica ta była mniejsza i wynosiła 80 ml. Występowanie cukrzycy było istotnie związane z niższymi wartościami  FVC u mężczyzn i u kobiet, natomiast z FEV1 tylko u kobiet. Nie zaobserwowano istotnego związku pomiędzy hipercholesterolemią a FEV1 i FVC. Zaobserwowano istotny ujemny trend w średnich wartościach FEV1 i FVC pomiędzy kategoriami całkowitego ryzyka sercowo-naczyniowego. Wniosek: Upośledzenie funkcji oddechowych  było związane z wyższym ryzykiem sercowo-naczyniowym, co częściowo może być wyjaśnione odwrotnym związkiem pomiędzy obniżonymi funkcjami  oddechowymi a występowaniem otyłości, nadciśnienia tętniczego  i cukrzycy.

Epidemia palenia w Krakowie

Smoking Epidemic in KrakowElimination of tobacco smoking is an important measure to support health and increase life expectancy. Availability of local data on smoking prevalence and health consequences of smoking is of crucial importance for any anti-smoking campaign.The aim of the present paper is to: 1) describe prevalence of smoking in population of middle-aged residents of Krakow, 2) assess a smokingrelated total mortality risk, and 3) evaluate an excess total mortality attributed to smoking.The study was based on data from Polish part of the HAPIEE Project (Health, Alcohol, Psychosocial Factors in Eastern Europe), a prospective study initiated in 2002. Krakow residents at age 45–69 years were randomly selected within age and gender strata from population registers. Out of initial 10,728 participants, 4857 men and 5127 women were included to the present analysis. Out of them 1630 (34%) men and 1330 (26%) women were current smokers, and 1763 (36%) men and 1077 (22%) women were former smokers. Altogether 71% men and 48% women were ever-smokers. Mean follow-up time was 61 (SD = 10.6) and 62 (SD = 8.0) months for men and women respectively. During the follow-up period there were 294 (6.1%) deaths in men and 135 (2.7%) deaths in women. In total 51,345 person-years were observed. After adjustment to the main cardiovascular risk factors (age, education, BMI, systolic blood pressure , total cholesterol, physical activity and alcohol consumption) more then 3 times higher hazard ratio (HR = 3.3, 95% CI: 2.25–4.99) for currently smoking men and 2 times higher hazard ratio (HR = 2.2, 95% CI: 1.29–3.39) for women compared to non-smokers were observed. In ever-smokers the hazard ratios were as follows: HR = 2.6, 95% CI: 1.78–3.71 for men and HR = 1.8, 95% CI: 1.17–2.69 for women. Among former smokers, the lowest hazard ratio was observed in those who quit smoking more than 15 years ago. In total, 53% of all deaths in men and 18% of all deaths in women were attributed to smoking.In conclusion, implementation of an effective intervention program on smoking cessation should be one of the main targets of public health and preventive medicine in Krakow

Environmental and socio-economic determinants of infant mortality in Poland : an ecological study

BACKGROUND: Health status of infants is related to the general state of health of women of child-bearing age; however, women's occupational environment and socio-economic conditions also seem to play an important role. The aim of the present ecological study was to assess the relationship between occupational environment, industrial pollution, socio-economic status and infant mortality in Poland. METHODS: Data on infant mortality and environmental and socio-economic characteristics for the 66 sub-regions of Poland for the years 2005–2011 were used in the analysis. Factor analysis was used to extract the most important factors explaining total variance among the 23 studied exposures. Generalized Estimating Equations model was used to evaluate the link between infant mortality and the studied extracted factors. RESULTS: Marked variation for infant mortality and the characteristics of industrialization was observed among the 66 sub-regions of Poland. Four extracted factors: “poor working environment”, “urbanization and employment in the service sector”, “industrial pollution”, “economic wealth” accounted for 77.3 % of cumulative variance between the studied exposures. In the multivariate regression analysis, an increase in factor “poor working environment” of 1 SD was related to an increase in infant mortality of 40 (95 % CI: 28–53) per 100,000 live births. Additionally, an increase in factor “industrial pollution” of 1 SD was associated with an increase in infant mortality of 16 (95 % CI: 2–30) per 100,000 live births. The factors “urbanization and employment in the service sector” and “economic wealth” were not significantly related to infant mortality. CONCLUSION: The study findings suggested that, at the population level, infant mortality was associated with an industrial environment. Strategies to improve working conditions and reduce industrial pollution might contribute to a reduction in infant mortality in Poland. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12940-015-0048-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users