Growth and Yield of a Tropical Rain Forest in the Brazilian Amazon 13 Years After Logging

Successive inventories of a silvicultural experiment in terra firme rain forest within the Tapajos National Forest in the Brazilian Amazon are examined to provide guidelines for operational forest management on a sustainable basis. The experiment was logged in 1979 without additional silvicultural treatment, but included protection from further logging and encroachment ("log and leave"). Thirty-six permanent plots established in 1981, were remeasured in 1987 and 1992. Logging changed the canopy structure and altered the composition of the stand, reducing the number of shade tolerant species and stimulating light demanding species. There was a nett increase in stem number and stand basal area during the 11 year observation period, and this trend also holds for most of the individual species. The stand basal area 13 years after logging was about 75% of that in a comparable unlogged forest. Logging stimulated growth, but this effect was short-lived, lasting only about 3 years, and current growth rates are similar to those in the unlogged forest. Between the first and second remeasures, average diameter increment decreased from 0.4 to 0.2 cm/yr, mortality remained relatively constant at 2.5% per year, while recruitment (at 5 cm dbh) decreased from 5% to 2%. Total volume production declined from approx. 6 to 4 cu m/ha/yr, while commercial production remained about 0.8 cu m/ha/yr. New commercial species increased the commercial volume in 1992 from 18 to 54 cu m/ha, and the increment to 1.8 cu m/ha/yr. Results from this experiment provide the first quantitative information for management planning in the Tapajos Forest, and may guide the choice of cutting cycle and annual allowable cut. Silvicultural treatment to stimulate growth rates in forest areas zoned for timber production should be considered as a viable management option. Extrapolations of these results to an anticipated 30-35 year cutting cycle must be interpreted with caution. On-going remeasurement and analysis of these and other plots over the next 30 years or more are necessary to provide a stronger basis for management inferences

The impact of lianas on 10 years of tree growth and mortality on Barro Colorado Island, Panama

1. Lianas compete intensely with trees, but few studies have examined long‐term effects of liana infestation on tree growth and mortality. We quantified the effects of lianas in tree crowns (n = 2907) and rooted within 2 m of trees (n = 1086) on growth and mortality of 30 tree species from 1995 to 2005 on Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama, documented liana infestation in tree crowns in 1996 and 2007 to determine the dynamics of liana infestation, and quantified liana infestation in the crowns of 3231 additional canopy trees (d.b.h. ≥20 cm) in 2007 to compare with the same metric determined by previous studies in 1967 and 1980. 2. Severe liana infestation increased tree mortality: 21% of liana‐free trees in 1996 had died by 2007, whereas 42% of trees with more than 75% of the crown infested by lianas in 1996 had died by 2007. 3. Liana infestation of tree crowns significantly reduced tree growth, particularly on sun‐exposed trees. The proximity of rooted lianas significantly reduced the growth of shaded trees. 4. Liana infestation was dynamic: 10.9% of trees with severe liana infestation in their crowns in 1996 had shed all of their lianas by 2007 and 5.3% of trees with no lianas in their crown in 1996 had severe liana infestation in 2007. 5. Liana infestation was common: lianas were present in 53% of trees of the 30 focal species. Including lianas rooted within 2 m of the tree increased this percentage to 78%. Using both above‐ and below‐ground measures may provide a better estimate of liana competition than either measure alone. 6. Liana infestation is increasing on BCI. Lianas were present in the crowns of 73.6% of canopy trees (d.b.h. ≥20 cm). Liana canopy infestation was 57% higher than in 1980 and 65% higher than in 1967, which is consistent with reported increases in liana abundance, biomass, and leaf and flower production. 7. Synthesis. We used one of the largest studies ever conducted on lianas to confirm the negative effects of lianas on tree growth and survival over 10 years. Liana infestation of trees was widespread, dynamic and increasing on BCI

Structure and Floristic Composition of Flood Plain Forests in the Peruvian Amazon. II. The Understorey of Restinga Forests

Structure and floristic composition of small trees and shrubs (1.5 m height to 10 cm diameter at breast height was described in two flood plain forests of the lower Ucayali river, Peruvian Amazon. The forests were of the high and low restinga type, on an annual average flooded around 1 and 2 months, respectively. The soils were nutrient rich entisols, and the vegetation forms closed high canopy forests with presence of emergents. A total of 25 permanent sample plots covering 0.64 ha were established. They were nested within six quadratic 1 ha permanent sample plots where large individuals (>10 cm DBH) were inventoried. Overall average density and basal area of the understorey were 4458 ha and 5.0 m2 /ha, respectively. The families of Moraceae, Leguminosae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Lauraceae were among the most important tree families, while important shrub and small tree families were Violaceae, Rubiaceae, Melastomataceae, and Olacaceae. Two hundred eight and 204 tree species were registered in the restinga forest overstories and understories, respectively. Fifty-six percent of the species were shared between the two forest strata, while around 22% were confined to each of them. Species present only in the understorey were predominantly shrubs or treelets, while some of the species with a presence only in the overstorey were probably early succession species about to disappear from the forests

Natural regeneration of trees in selectively logged forest in western Amazonia.

We evaluated the impacts of selective logging on tree regeneration one, four, and eight years after harvests in Antimary State Forest in the State of Acre, Brazil. We inventoried tree seedlings, saplings, and poles (>50 cm tall to <10 cm DBH) on secondary roads, log landing, and skid trails, as well as in the bole and crown zones of canopy gaps created by felling; for comparison we also sampled areas not affected directly by logging. We compared these habitats on the basis soil (physical) characteristics, canopy cover, and floristic composition. For areas one and four years after logging, we supplemented the ground-based information with aerial LiDAR data. By eight years post-logging the size class distributions of tree regeneration in all habitat types resembled those in unlogged areas, and densities were only lower in crown gaps. Eight years after logging, relative densities of pioneer trees were highest on secondary roads and log landings; no among habitat differences were observed in the relative densities of non-pioneer species at any time along the chronosequence. Tree species diversity (Fisher's alpha) converged on unlogged values on skid trails, bole gaps, and crown gaps at 8-years post-logging, but values remained lower on secondary roads and log landings. Canopy openness was greatest one year after logging, especially in log landings (mean 45.4 ± SE 4.5%) whereas four and eight years post-logging it did not exceed 10% and no differences were found among habitats. Soil bulk density was elevated relative to un-logged areas only on log landings one and four years after logging, and this difference disappeared by eight years postlogging. The total area disturbed by logging varied from 7.0% to 8.6% with nearly half of the totals in felling gaps (3.0-3.7%)

Variations in richness and tree species diversity within 14 years in a valley forest, Mato Grosso, Brazil

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo descrever variações na riqueza, na diversidade e na contribuição dos grupos ecológicos para a composição florística da vegetação arbustiva e arbórea (DAP ≥ 5 cm) na Floresta de Vale no Véu de Noiva (FVVN), localizada no Parque Nacional da Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brasil, num período de 14 anos, com base em cinco inventários (1996, 1999, 2003, 2006 e 2010). Todas as espécies arbustivas e arbóreas (DAP ≥ 5 cm) foram amostradas sistematicamente em 18 parcelas de 600 m² distribuídas em três transecções no vale. As mudanças na riqueza de espécies resultaram em aumento, porém não significativos, nos intervalos menores (1996–1999, 1999–2003, 2003–2006 e 2006–2010) enquanto no intervalo maior (1996 a 2010) o aumento foi significativo (comparações entre contagens de Poisson, p 0,05). A contribuição dos grupos ecológicos para a composição florística também não apresentou mudanças significativamente durante os 14 anos de monitoramento. Estes resultados sugerem uma comunidade com dinâmica acelerada na composição florística, porém com manutenção temporal da diversidade e da distribuição das espécies entre os grupos ecológicos.The goal of this study was evaluate changes in richness, diversity and the contribution of successional groups to tree species composition of a Valley Forest in the Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, Mato Grosso State, Brazil, over 14 years (1996 – 2010) from five surveys intervals (1996–1999, 1999–2003, 2003–2006, 2006–2010, 1996–2010). All tree species (dbh ≥ 5 cm) were sampled systematically in a total of 18 plots (600 m²) established into three transects in valley. Whereas the changes in species richness were positive, but barely noticeable when analyzed in shorter intervals, the range considering the whole interval (1996–2010) was significant (comparisons of Poisson counts) with a net increase of 20 species. Despite the observed species turnover, maintaining evenness seems to have given the absence of significant changes in diversity over the period studied (Hutcheson t test). The contribution of successional groups to the tree species composition of tree community also did not show significant changes during 14 years of monitoring. These results suggest that tree community dynamics of a Valley forest is accelerated in tree species composition, although maintaining temporal diversity and distribution of species among successional groups

Old timber plantations and secondary forests attain levels of plant diversity and structure similar to primary forests in the West African humid tropics

Considering the high rate of primary forest degradation and loss in the tropics, the ability to conserve plant diversity within alternative forest landscape components is critical to biodiversity conservation. This study compares the restoration potential of old forest plantations and secondary forests. We assessed and compared the floristics, plant species diversity, conservation value, and structure of old (42-47 years) timber plantations of Aucoumea klaineana Pierre, Cedrela odorata L., Tarrietia utilis Sprague, and Terminalia ivorensis A. Chev. and similar-aged secondary forests with nearby primary (old-growth) forests in the moist and wet forest zones of Ghana. We established a systematic sampling set-up of ninety-three 20 m x 20 m plots in total on 11 sites, with smaller nested subplots for saplings and ground vegetation. The floristic composition of the plantation and secondary forest stands were similar to that of the primary forests, with many rare and restricted-range species shared by the three forest types. Approximately 77% and 60% of primary forest plant species also occurred in plantation and secondary forests, respectively. Species diversity, measured by the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H') and Simpson Index (S), for the primary forest (H'=3.07, S = 0.91) was not statistically different from the plantation (H'=2.85, S = 0.87) or secondary (H'=2.95, S = 0.88) forests. Overall, species richness was higher in the primary and secondary forests compared to the plantations. At the tree stratum (>= 10 cm DBH), the assessed diversity indices were significantly different between the primary forest and the plantations. However, such differences did not exist among the saplings (10 cm > DBH >= 2 cm) and ground vegetation (< 2cm DBH). The plantations and secondary forests were similar to the primary forests for all the structural characteristics assessed. However, basal area and bole volume were significantly higher in the plantations compared with secondary forests. Conservation value (using Genetic Heat Index as an indicator) was highest in one of the C. odorata plantations (W-CO). Our study demonstrates that plantation and secondary forests can develop into structurally complex and floristically diverse self-organized stands similar to primary forests. Passive conversion of plantations to more natural ecosystems is an effective and low-cost forest restoration strategy leading to diverse ecosystems with high conservation value.Peer reviewe

Illumination-size Relationships of 109 Coexisting Tropical Forest Tree Species

Competition for light is a central issue in ecological questions concerning forest tree differentiation and diversity. Here, using 213 106 individual stem records derived from a national survey in Ghana, West Africa, we examine the relationship between relative crown exposure, ontogeny and phylogeny for 109 canopy species. We use a generalized linear model (GLM) framework to allow interspecific comparisons of crown exposure that control for stem-size. For each species, a multinomial response model is used to describe the probabilities of the relative canopy illumination classes as a function of stem diameter. In general, and for all larger stems, canopy-exposure increases with diameter. Five species have size-related exposure patterns that reveal local minima above 5 cm d.b.h., but only one, Panda oleosa, shows a local maximum at a low diameter. The pattern of species exposures at 10 cm diameter is consistent with two overlapping groups, of which the smaller (21 species, including most pioneers) is generally better exposed. Relative illumination rankings amongst species are significantly maintained over a wide range of stem sizes. Species that are well exposed at small diameters are therefore also more likely to be well exposed at larger diameters, although two species in the most exposed 25% of species at 10 cm d.b.h. drop to the lowest illumination quartile at 40 cm d.b.h., and three demonstrate the opposite (low-to-high) pattern. Species capable of achieving the largest diameters are generally recorded less frequently in shade than are smaller species, even when compared as saplings, suggesting that species achieving large mature sizes are generally shade intolerant when small. Controlling for phylogeny reveals that this relationship holds across independent lineages. We also find evidence that the range of strategies encountered is influenced by disturbance regimes. We interpret our results as indicating a continuum of strategies that reflect an evolutionary trade-off between a species mature size and its general shade-tolerance, in combination with differentiation based on disturbance based opportunities. Species that appear similar can therefore remain ecologically distinct over their lifetimes

Increasing liana abundance and biomass in tropical forests: emerging patterns and putative mechanisms

Tropical forests are experiencing large‐scale structural changes, the most apparent of which may be the increase in liana (woody vine) abundance and biomass. Lianas permeate most lowland tropical forests, where they can have a huge effect on tree diversity, recruitment, growth and survival, which, in turn, can alter tree community composition, carbon storage and carbon, nutrient and water fluxes. Consequently, increasing liana abundance and biomass have potentially profound ramifications for tropical forest composition and functioning. Currently, eight studies support the pattern of increasing liana abundance and biomass in American tropical and subtropical forests, whereas two studies, both from Africa, do not. The putative mechanisms to explain increasing lianas include increasing evapotranspirative demand, increasing forest disturbance and turnover, changes in land use and fragmentation and elevated atmospheric CO2. Each of these mechanisms probably contributes to the observed patterns of increasing liana abundance and biomass, and the mechanisms are likely to be interrelated and synergistic. To determine whether liana increases are occurring throughout the tropics and to determine the mechanisms responsible for the observed patterns, a widespread network of large‐scale, long‐term monitoring plots combined with observational and manipulative studies that more directly investigate the putative mechanisms are essential

Variabilité de la croissance en circonférence des arbres dans les forêts semi-décidues de Lamto (Côte d'Ivoire)

Girth increments of trees were studied using band-dendrometers in some semi-deciduous forests in Lamto (Ivory Coast). Every tree over 20 cm gbh was monitored monthly, during 5 to 9 years, in seven stands. Girth increments' distributions were log-normal in the forest stands studied, a few individuals contributing to the largest part of the forest production. Girth increments vary widely; even between trees of similar size; several types of girth increment were described (regular, intermittent, increasing or decreasing etc.). A yearly periodicity of growth, in conformity with the local climatic cycle, is the pattern most commonly observed, mainly in fast growing trees, but yearly bimodal patterns and dry season increments were also observed. The variability of growth patterns is mainly due to intra-specific variability. At the community level the mortality rate of trees ranges, between stands, from 1 to 4%

Initial development and biomass allocation in seedlings of Brosimum rubescens Taub. (Moraceae) at different shading levels

Florestas monodominantes de Brosimum rubescens Taub. (Moraceae) ocorrem na zona de transição Cerrado/Amazônia e encontram-se ameaçadas pela extração da madeira. Dentre as possíveis causas de monodominância destaca-se a disponibilidade de luz, de modo que o objetivo deste trabalho foi testar os efeitos no crescimento e na assimilação de CO2 de diferentes níveis de sombreamento em condições naturais e em viveiro. Em viveiro, os tratamentos foram 0, 30, 50, 70 e 90% de sombreamento e na floresta foram avaliadas plantas jovens crescendo sob o dossel e em clareira. A taxa de assimilação de CO2 em resposta a variações na intensidade luminosa foi medida em plantas jovens sob três condições de sombreamento. As plantas que cresceram sob o dossel fechado apresentaram taxas de crescimento relativo menores do que aquelas que cresceram na clareira. Aos 21 meses, o maior valor de massa seca total (9,46 g) foi encontrado sob 50% de sombreamento, representando um acúmulo de biomassa 144% superior ao tratamento sob 90%. Em todos os tratamentos e amostragens, a partição foi massa seca da raiz > folhas > caule. A menor taxa fotossintética máxima (Amáx= 3,46 µmol m-2 s1) foi observada para 90% de sombreamento e a maior (Amáx= 7,89 µmol m-2 s-1) foi registrada sob 30% de sombreamento. Clareiras provavelmente desempenham um papel importante na manutenção da monodominância, uma vez que B. rubescens apresentou plasticidade para diferentes condições de luminosidade e maior crescimento nos níveis intermediários de sombreamento.Monodominant forests of Brosimum rubescens Taub. (Moraceae) occur at the Cerrado/Amazonia boundary and are threatened by logging. Light is considered an important determinant for monodominance in forests, so the aim of this study was to analyze initial growth at shading levels of 0, 30, 50, 70 and 90% in the nursery, in a forest gap, and also at a closed canopy site. Photosynthesis was measured in seedlings at three shading levels. Seedlings under a closed canopy showed lower relative growth rates in comparison to seedlings growing in a nearby gap. At 21 months of age, the highest total dry mass of 9.46 g was measured at 50% shading. This represents a biomass accumulation of 144% over that found at 90% shading. For all treatments in every assessment the partitioning was dry matter of roots > leaves > stems. The lowest maximum photosynthesis rate (Amax= 3.46 µmol m-2 s-1) was recorded at 90% shading and the highest (Amax= 7.89 µmol m-2 s-1) was recorded at 30% shading. Gaps seem to play an important role in maintaining monodominance since B. rubescens showed some plasticity regarding light conditions and grew better at intermediate shading levels