58 research outputs found

    Investigating the potentially contradictory microfoundations of financialization

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    The existing academic literature on financialization points to multiple instances in which firms attempt to demonstrate the vitality of their stock-market position in ways which ultimately prove to be self-harming. I demonstrate, in the first instance as a matt er of immanent logic, that these actions are linked to the interplay of contradictory tendencies in the microfoundations of financialization. Under conditions of financialization, firms create additional sources of credit to capitalize their productive activities by driving their stock price into greater increases than the market average, thereby generating capital gains. Yet, the more it becomes public knowledge that the financing tricks used to inflate the stock price provide no productive benefit to the firm, the more it would seem to create incentives for fund managers to hold portfolios that replicate the stock market as a whole. In this way, they will minimize their exposure to financial misrepresentation. Such a stance undermines financialized business models, but it does in any case conform to fund managers' basic theoretical training, which revolves around the logical demonstration that an individual stock cannot systematically out-perform the market average. I review the available empirical studies of fund manager decision-making to show that they find against the existence of a simple performativity loop operating between finance theory and fund manager behaviour. However, on many points the empirical evidence does confirm the theoretically derived conclusion concerning the potentially contradictory microfoundations of financialization. Fund managers often do act in a way which is consistent with finance theory's core claim that an index-tracking strategy represents the only equilibrium portfolio, even if this is only rarely as a result of the direct performativity of the theory

    The US Dollar, the Euro, and the Yen: An Evaluation of Their Present and Future Status as International Currencies

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    The process of European integration and especially the introduction of the euro as the single currency for up to now 12 member countries of the EU in 1999 may alter the existing clear currency hierarchy. The euro area is comparable in size to the US with respect to GDP and even exceeds the US regarding the share in world trade. Thus questions arise of whether the international monetary system turns out to be bipolar in the long run or whether the yen can also play its part. It turns out that real activity, size and sophistication of financial markets, monetary and financial stability and inertia are the most prominent characteristics making a currency to be preferred on a world-wide level. We thus conclude that the integration and the development of European financial markets are of special importance for a stronger international role of the dollar, but that the historical experience of only gradually changing supremacy of international currencies still applies

    Discordant identification of pediatric severe sepsis by research and clinical definitions in the SPROUT international point prevalence study

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    Introduction: Consensus criteria for pediatric severe sepsis have standardized enrollment for research studies. However, the extent to which critically ill children identified by consensus criteria reflect physician diagnosis of severe sepsis, which underlies external validity for pediatric sepsis research, is not known. We sought to determine the agreement between physician diagnosis and consensus criteria to identify pediatric patients with severe sepsis across a network of international pediatric intensive care units (PICUs). Methods: We conducted a point prevalence study involving 128 PICUs in 26 countries across 6 continents. Over the course of 5 study days, 6925 PICU patients <18 years of age were screened, and 706 with severe sepsis defined either by physician diagnosis or on the basis of 2005 International Pediatric Sepsis Consensus Conference consensus criteria were enrolled. The primary endpoint was agreement of pediatric severe sepsis between physician diagnosis and consensus criteria as measured using Cohen's ?. Secondary endpoints included characteristics and clinical outcomes for patients identified using physician diagnosis versus consensus criteria. Results: Of the 706 patients, 301 (42.6 %) met both definitions. The inter-rater agreement (? ± SE) between physician diagnosis and consensus criteria was 0.57 ± 0.02. Of the 438 patients with a physician's diagnosis of severe sepsis, only 69 % (301 of 438) would have been eligible to participate in a clinical trial of pediatric severe sepsis that enrolled patients based on consensus criteria. Patients with physician-diagnosed severe sepsis who did not meet consensus criteria were younger and had lower severity of illness and lower PICU mortality than those meeting consensus criteria or both definitions. After controlling for age, severity of illness, number of comorbid conditions, and treatment in developed versus resource-limited regions, patients identified with severe sepsis by physician diagnosis alone or by consensus criteria alone did not have PICU mortality significantly different from that of patients identified by both physician diagnosis and consensus criteria. Conclusions: Physician diagnosis of pediatric severe sepsis achieved only moderate agreement with consensus criteria, with physicians diagnosing severe sepsis more broadly. Consequently, the results of a research study based on consensus criteria may have limited generalizability to nearly one-third of PICU patients diagnosed with severe sepsis

    Kammerflimmern bei 15-jÀhrigem Patienten unter Methylphenidattherapie

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    Croissance et emploi : l'ambition d'une initiative européenne

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    [eng] Growth and employment the scope of an European initiative Jacques DrĂšze, Edmond Malinvaud et Alii Executive Summary 1. Since almost twenty years now, European unemployment is a major social problem and the sign of significant underutilisation of resources at a time of substantial unfilled needs. Whereas employment increased by nearly 6 % between 1987 and 1990 in EC12, the rate of employment is now again exceeding 10 % and rising. Even under reasonably optimistic forecasts (a growth rate of 2.5 to 3 %), the unemployment rate will remain above 10 % for at least four or five years. This position paper reviews the short-, medium- and long-run policies best susceptible of promoting growth and employment in Europe. 2. We argue that fiscal policy is not, at this time, a suitable instrument of short-run stabilisation. Attention should rather be focussed on medium-term structural budget consolidation, which was neglected during the expansion of the late eighties. On the other hand, we argue for monetary stimulation through a strong decrease of short-term interest rates, and propose the reference level of zero short-term real interest rates. 3. Turning to medium-run policies, we advocate two sets of measures, concerning respectively labour costs and investment. 3. a We note that high unemployment is heavily concentrated among unskilled workers. Moreover, we find evidence of a trend in the skilll composition of labour demand, which contains a declining proportion of unskilled jobs. These considerations justify investment in training and education. We believe that they also justify immediate measures aimed at reducing the cost of unskilled labour relative to the cost of skilled labour and of capital. An important element of labour costs consists in taxes and social insurance contributions, which drive a substantial wedge — 30 to 50 % in the EC member countries — between the cost of labour to employers on the one hand, take-home pay or the social opportunity cost of unskilled labour on the other hand. We argue that the time has come to reduce that wedge, and we propose exempting minimum wages from employers' contributions to social security. This may be done either by collecting such contributions only on that part of all wages that exceeds minimum wages ; or by introducing an exemption amounting to 100 % of these contributions at the minimum wage level but decreasing linearly to zero at twice that level. The first measure is very costly — of the order of 3.2 % of GDP on average in EC12, with substantial country differences. The second measure is much less costly, rather like 1.2% of GDP. In either case, substitute resources should be allocated to the social security. The CO2 tax currently under consideration by EC countries (with estimated receipts of the order of 1 to 1 .3 % of GDP) is a natural source. Raising the ceiling on VAT rates is another source. There is room for country- specific measures. Econometric simulations of labour tax exemptions in France and Belgium must be regarded as imprecise. Generally, they confirm our belief that no miracle should be hoped for, but that appreciable medium-term gains in employment are in sight, at no budgetary cost, if our proposal is implemented on a bold scale. 3. b With regard to investment, we recognise that unused capacities limit the immediate prospects for business investment. But we argue that idle resources could be mobilised towards labour-intensive investments with adequate social returns — contributing in addition to sustain aggregate demand. This is also the logic of the Edinburgh initiative, where Trans-European Neworks receive priority, together with small firms. We argue however that the Edinburgh package falls short of what is needed. An investment program matching the structural budget consolidations to come would place no strain on capital markets, while making up the shortfall in public investments of the past decade. We advance a figure of 250 Bilion ECU'S (or roughly 8 times the Edinburgh objective) as a realistic medium-term target, and propose to privilege in addition areas like low-income housing, urban renewal and urban transportation. In order to stimulate such targeted investments, we suggest to rely mainly on employment subsidies, proportional to the labour content of approved projects. This would reinforce, or possibly anticipate, our previous suggestion for reducing labour costs — while enlarging the set of investments attractive to private investors and local authorities... Improved access to capital markets should in addition be sought through collaboration with institutional intermediaries, through an extension of the mission of the European Investment Bank and through an extension or replication of the European Investment Fund. 4. Our discussion of structural problems is foccused on basic principles. We first stress the detrimental incidence of the prevailing uncertainty about some inflation, interest and exchange rates, but also about institutional developments in the monetary area — including the recurring temptations of competitive devaluations. We do not opt for a specific political program. But we stress that reducing institutional monetary uncertainties is an important goal in its own rights. It should be pursued actively, to put monetary Europe on a track more promising for employment than a return to floating exchange rates between the currencies of relatively small economies closely integrated through trade. We next turn to public finance and the Welfare State, recognising the need in several countries for structural budget consolidation, and the elements of disenchantment with respect to the performance of the Welfare State. Reviewing its economic logic, we conclude that the agenda should be to make the Welfare State leaner and more efficient, not to dismantle it. This calls for reviewing in depth the operating and distributive efficiency of existing programs, with the conflicting aims of reducing the share of social transfers in GDP by several percentage points, while strengthening the protection of the least endowed. Economists should intensify their participation in this important research challenge. Finally, we draw the implication for wages of an European Growth Initiative aimed at a period of sustained growth, with priority given to employment relative to real wages. We feel that a realistic pattern combines output growth in excess of 3 % with employment growth above 1 %. This leaves a margin of at most 2 % for real wages. Given the presence of wage drift, this seems to call for negotiated settlements at roughly constant real wages. Is such a pattern realistic ? We bring out the controversial issue of the significance for wage developments of the relative tax burdens on capital and labour. And we recognise that the decline of the labour share in the eighties has been accompanied by a rise in the share of interest income, which in many cases is subject to little taxation, due in particular to capital mobility and intercountry tax competition. A uniform withholding tax on interest income at the European level is the only avenue to correct that imbalance. Whether or not such a tax is desirable in its own rights is a debated issue. That debate should be enlarged to recognise that distributional fairness in the tax treatment of capital and labour could make a significant contribution to wage moderation — even though it may be premature to regard the empirical evidence as conclusive. 5. We hope to have identified a set of measures endowed with overall consistency and with a globality commensurate with the magnitude of the problem confronting us. They have budgetary implications that call for reallocating a few percentage points of GDP, which is more than usually contemplated. And they fall under the responsibility of a whole set of institutions which are not engaged in systematic policy coordination. Serious problems of implementation should thus be tackled. We call on policy makers to exert boldness and determination in tackling these problems. And we call on academic economists to participate actively in the definition and promotion of an ambitious European initiative — starting perhaps with a criticism and elaboration of our own views. [fre] Depuis bientĂŽt vingt ans, le chĂŽmage europĂ©en est un problĂšme social majeur et le signe d'une importante sous-utilisation des ressources Ă  une Ă©poque oĂč existent bien des besoins insatisfaits. Alors que l'emploi a crĂ» de prĂšs de 6 % entre 1987 et 1990 dans la CommunautĂ© EuropĂ©enne des douze, le taux de chĂŽmage dĂ©passe Ă  nouveau 10 % et s'Ă©lĂšve. MĂȘme selon des prĂ©visions raisonnablement optimistes (un taux de croissance de 2,5 Ă  3 %) le taux de chĂŽmage dĂ©passera 10 % durant au moins quatre ou cinq ans. Cette note prend position sur les politiques de court, moyen et long terme que nous considĂ©rons comme les mieux aptes Ă  promouvoir la croissance et l'emploi en Europe Occidentale. Nous prĂ©tendons qu'actuellement une politique budgĂ©taire active ne paraĂźt pas constituer un instrument adĂ©quat pour la stabilisation Ă©conomique Ă  court terme. L'attention devrait plutĂŽt se concentrer sur la consolidation structurelle Ă  moyen terme des budgets, un objectif nĂ©gligĂ© durant l'expansion de la fin des annĂ©es 80. Mais nous plaidons pour une stimulation monĂ©taire, Ă  obtenir par une forte rĂ©duction des taux d'intĂ©rĂȘt nominaux Ă  court terme ; nous proposons le niveau de rĂ©fĂ©rence zĂ©ro pour les taux d'intĂ©rĂȘt rĂ©els Ă  court terme, pour aussi longtemps que l'on n'observe pas clairement que la reprise est engagĂ©e. S' agissant des politiques de moyen terme, nous recommandons deux ensembles de mesures relatifs respectivement aux coĂ»ts du travail et Ă  l'investissement. Nous notons que le chĂŽmage Ă©levĂ© se concentre fortement sur les travailleurs non qualifiĂ©s. De plus nous trouvons la preuve d'un dĂ©saccord croissant entre les structures par qualifications de l'offre et la demande de travail, la composition de celle-ci se modifiant vite au dĂ©triment des travailleurs non qualifiĂ©s. Cette observation justifie que l'on investisse dans l'enseignement et la formation. Nous considĂ©rons qu'elle justifie aussi des mesures visant Ă  rĂ©duire le coĂ»t du travail non qualifiĂ© par rapport aux coĂ»ts du travail qualifiĂ© et du capital. Un Ă©lĂ©ment important du coĂ»t du travail est constituĂ© par des impĂŽts et contributions sociales, qui entraĂźnent un Ă©cart, particuliĂšrement substantiel pour le travail non qualifiĂ©, entre le coĂ»t pour les employeurs et le coĂ»t d'opportunitĂ© pour la sociĂ©tĂ© — de 30 % Ă  50 % dans les pays de la CommunautĂ©. Nous prĂ©tendons que le moment est venu de rĂ©duire cet Ă©cart et nous proposons d'exempter le salaire minimum des contributions sociales Ă  la charge des employeurs. Cela peut se faire soit en percevant de telles contributions, pour tout salaire, sur la part excĂ©dant le salaire minimum, soit en introduisant une exonĂ©ration dĂ©gressive s'Ă©levant Ă  100 % au niveau du salaire minimum et dĂ©croissant linĂ©airement jusqu'Ă  zĂ©ro au niveau double. La premiĂšre modalitĂ© implique une rĂ©forme substantielle des systĂšmes fiscaux, car son coĂ»t direct s'Ă©lĂšve Ă  environ 3,2 % du PIB en moyenne dans la CommunautĂ©, avec des diffĂ©rences importantes suivant les pays. En revanche, le coĂ»t de la seconde modalitĂ© est plutĂŽt de l'ordre de 1,2 % du PIB. Dans les deux cas, des ressources de remplacement doivent ĂȘtre trouvĂ©es pour la sĂ©curitĂ© sociale. Une source naturelle serait l'impĂŽt sur les Ă©missions de CO2 qui est actuellement examinĂ© par les pays de la CommunautĂ© (avec un rendement estimĂ© de l'ordre de 1 Ă  1,3 % du PIB). Une autre source rĂ©siderait dans un relĂšvement des taux de la TVA. Pour la dĂ©finition exacte, la mise en Ɠuvre et le financement de cette mesure, il y a Ă©videmment place Ă  des mesures spĂ©cifiques aux divers pays. Les simulations Ă©conomĂ©triques faites en France et en Belgique concernant les exonĂ©rations de taxes sur le travail, doivent ĂȘtre considĂ©rĂ©es comme imprĂ©cises. En termes gĂ©nĂ©raux elles confirment nos idĂ©es selon lesquelles il ne faut certes pas espĂ©rer un miracle, mais des gains apprĂ©ciables en emploi peuvent ĂȘtre attendus Ă  moyen terme, sans coĂ»t budgĂ©taire, si notre proposition est appliquĂ©e sans timiditĂ©. A propos de l'investissement, nous reconnaissons que des capacitĂ©s inutilisĂ©es limitent les perspectives immĂ©diates d'Ă©quipe- ment des entreprises. Mais nous prĂ©tendons que des ressources inemployĂ©es peuvent ĂȘtre mobilisĂ©es pour des investissements riches en travail, qui auraient des rendements sociaux adĂ©quats et contribueraient de plus Ă  soutenir la demande globale. C'est aussi la logique de l'initiative d'Edimbourg, oĂč les rĂ©seaux trans-euro- pĂ©ens ont reçu la prioritĂ©, ainsi que les petites entreprises. Nous prĂ©tendons cependant que l'ensemble convenu Ă  Edimbourg est insuffisant. Un programme d'investissement dont le montant correspondrait aux efforts Ă  venir pour la consolidation structurelle des budgets ne crĂ©erait pas de tension sur les marchĂ©s du capital, tout en compensant le retard pris par les investissements publics dans la dĂ©cennie passĂ©e. Nous avançons le chiffre de 250 milliards d'Ecus (soit grosso modo huit fois l'objectif d'Edimbourg) comme un but rĂ©aliste Ă  moyen terme. Nous proposons de privilĂ©gier aussi des domaines tels que le logement pour les mĂ©nages Ă  bas revenus, la rĂ©novation urbaine et les transports urbains. Afin de stimuler les investissements ainsi visĂ©s, nous suggĂ©rons que l'on s'en remettre surtout aux subventions Ă  l'emploi, en proportion du contenu en travail des projets retenus. Une telle disposition renforcerait, voire anticiperait, sur notre proposition prĂ©cĂ©dente destinĂ©e Ă  rĂ©duire les coĂ»ts du travail ; elle aurait surtout pour effet d'Ă©largir l'ensemble des projets attractifs pour des investisseurs privĂ©s et des autoritĂ©s locales. De plus un meilleur accĂšs au marchĂ© du capital devrait ĂȘtre recherchĂ© grĂące Ă  la collaboration d'intermĂ©diaires institutionnels, Ă  l'accroissement des missions de la Banque EuropĂ©enne d'Investissement, Ă  l'extension ou Ă  la duplication du Fonds EuropĂ©en d'Investissement. Notre discussion des problĂšmes structurels se concentre sur les principes de base. Nous insistons d'abord sur les effets dĂ©favorables des incertitudes actuelles qui touchent non seulement certains taux d'inflation, d'intĂ©rĂȘt et de change, mais aussi les Ă©volutions institutionnelles dans le domaine monĂ©taire, y compris la tentation rĂ©currente de dĂ©valuations compĂ©titives. Nous ne choisissons pas un programme politique spĂ©cifique. Mais nous proclamons que rĂ©duire les incertitudes institutionnelles Ă  propos des monnaies constitue un objectif important en lui-mĂȘme. Il devrait ĂȘtre poursuivi activement, afin d'engager l'Europe monĂ©taire sur une voie plus prometteuse pour l'emploi qu'un retour Ă  des taux de change flottants libres entre les monnaies d'Ă©conomies relativement petites et intĂ©grĂ©es entre elles par d'Ă©troits liens commerciaux. Nous examinons ensuite les finances publiques et l'Etat-provi- dence, en reconnaissant que plusieurs pays ont besoin d'une consolidation structurelle de leurs budgets et qu'il existe des Ă©lĂ©ments de dĂ©ception quant aux effets des rĂ©gimes sociaux. Etudiant la logique Ă©conomique de l' Etat-providence, nous concluons que les rĂ©formes Ă  rĂ©aliser devraient viser Ă  le rendre plus svelte et plus efficace, non Ă  le dĂ©manteler. Pour cela il faut revoir Ă  fond l'efficacitĂ© opĂ©rationnelle et distributive des programmes existants, afin d'atteindre deux objectifs difficilement compatibles : rĂ©duire dans la plupart des pays la part des transferts sociaux dans le PIB, renforcer la protection des plus mal dotĂ©s. Les Ă©conomistes devraient intensifier leur participation aux recherches destinĂ©es Ă  relever cet important dĂ©fi. Enfin, nous tirons les consĂ©quences salariales d'une Initiative EuropĂ©enne de Croissance visant Ă  une pĂ©riode d'expansion soutenue, donnant la prioritĂ© Ă  l'emploi par rapport aux salaires rĂ©els. Nous estimons qu'un schĂ©ma rĂ©aliste associe une croissance de la production de plus de 3 % l'an Ă  une augmentation de l'emploi de plus de 1 % l'an. Cela laisse une marge d'au plus 2 % pour les salaires rĂ©els. Etant donnĂ© la prĂ©sence du glissement salarial, le calcul semble conduire Ă  des accords nĂ©gociĂ©s avec des taux rĂ©els Ă  peu prĂšs constants. Ce schĂ©ma est-il rĂ©aliste ? Nous soulevons alors la question controversĂ©e du rĂŽle que peuvent jouer sur les salaires les poids comparĂ©s des impĂŽts sur le capital et le travail. Nous reconnaissons que la baisse de la part des salaires au cours des annĂ©es 80 a Ă©tĂ© accompagnĂ©e d'une augmentation de la part des revenus d'intĂ©rĂȘt, qui dans de nombreux cas sont peu taxĂ©s, notamment en raison de la mobilitĂ© des capitaux et d'une concurrence fiscale entre pays. A dĂ©faut de dĂ©clarations systĂ©matiques, un prĂ©lĂšvement Ă  la source uniforme au niveau europĂ©en, est le seul moyen de corriger ce dĂ©sĂ©quilibre en faveur des revenus d'intĂ©rĂȘt. La question de savoir si un tel prĂ©lĂšvement est ou non dĂ©sirable en lui-mĂȘme de façon permanente est dĂ©battue entre spĂ©cialistes de la fiscalitĂ©. Le dĂ©bat devrait ĂȘtre Ă©largi pour tenir compte de ce que l'Ă©quitĂ© dans le traitement fiscal du capital et du travail pourrait contribuer de façon significative Ă  la modĂ©ration salariale, bien qu'il soit prĂ©maturĂ© de considĂ©rer les preuves empiriques comme concluantes Ă  cet Ă©gard. Nous espĂ©rons avoir identifiĂ© un ensemble de mesures formant un tout cohĂ©rent et avoir dĂ©fini une initiative ayant la taille du problĂšme qui nous confronte. Ces mesures ont des implications budgĂ©taires conduisant Ă  rĂ©allouer quelques pour cent du PIB, donc davantage qu'on l'envisage habituellement. Et elles relĂšvent de la responsabilitĂ© d'un vaste ensemble d'institutions qui ne sont pas engagĂ©es dans une coordination systĂ©matique de leurs politiques. De sĂ©rieux problĂšmes devraient ainsi ĂȘtre rĂ©solus pour une mise en Ɠuvre. Nous en appelons aux responsables politiques pour qu'ils fassent preuve d'audace et de dĂ©termination en affrontant ces problĂšmes. Et nous en appelons aux Ă©conomistes des milieux acadĂ©miques pour qu'ils participent activement Ă  la dĂ©finition et Ă  la promotion d'une initiative europĂ©enne ambitieuse.
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