Confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modelling of the factor structure of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales-21

The Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) involves a simple structure first-order three-factor oblique model, with factors for depression, anxiety, and stress. Recently, concerns have been raised over the value of using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for studying the factor structure of scales in general. However, such concerns can be circumvented using exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM). Consequently, the present study used CFA and ESEM with target rotation to examine the factor structure of the DASS21 among an adult community. It compared first-order CFA, ESEM with target rotation, bifactor CFA (BCFA), and bi-factor BESEM with target rotation models with group/specific factors for depression, anxiety, and stress. A total of 738 adults (males = 374, and females = 364; M = 25.29 years; SD = 7.61 years) completed the DASS-21. While all models examined showed good global fit values, one or more of the group/specific factors in the BCFA, ESEM with target rotation and BESEM with target rotation models were poorly defined. As the first-order CFA model was most parsimonious, with well-defined factors that were also supported in terms of their reliabilities and validities, this model was selected as the preferred DASS21 model. The implications of the findings for use and revision of the DASS-21 are discussed

Internal and external validity of the brief version of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire: exploratory structural equation modelling

The present study used exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) to examine the theorized dimension structure of the brief version of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ-BR) at the scale-level (i.e., 11 lower-order primary factors loading on four higher-order factors) and item-level (sets of 12 items loading on 11 lower-order primary factors). A total of 214 adults from the community addressed the MPQ-BR and the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)/Behavioral Approach System (BAS) scales. The findings revealed poor fit and poorly defined factors at the item-level alongside adequate fit and well-defined factors at the scale-level. The higher-order factors in the latter model were supported for external validity in terms of demonstrating the expected theoretical and empirical correlations with the scales of the BIS/BAS scales. Result related implications for professional application, as well as potential revisions of the MPQ-BF are illustrated

A longitudinal study of adolescent Internet addiction: the role of conscientiousness and classroom hostility

Over the last decade, research on Internet Addiction (IA) has increased. However, almost all studies in this area are cross-sectional and do not examine the context in which internet use takes place. Therefore, a longitudinal study examined the role of conscientiousness (as a personality trait) and classroom hostility (as a contextual factor) in the development of IA. The participants comprised 648 adolescents and were assessed over a two-year period (while aged 16–18 years). A three-level hierarchical linear model was carried out on the data collected. Findings revealed that: (i) lower conscientiousness was associated with IA and this did not change over time; and (ii) although being in a more hostile classroom did not initially have a significant effect, it increased girls’ IA vulnerability over time and functioned protectively for boys. Results indicated that the contribution of individual and contextual IA factors may differ across genders and over time. More specifically, although the protective effect of conscientiousness appeared to hold, the over-time effect of classroom hostility increased the risk of IA for girls. These findings are discussed in relation to the psychological literature. The study’s limitations and implications are also discussed

Depression, Internet Gaming Disorder, and the moderating effect of the gamer-avatar relationship: an exploratory longitudinal study

Research into Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) literature largely uses cross-sectional designs and seldom examines gaming context-related factors. Therefore, the present study combined a cross-sectional and longitudinal design to examine depression and the gamer-avatar relationship (GAR) as risk factors in the development of IGD among emerging adults. IGD behaviors of 125 gamers (64 online gamers, Mage = 23.3 years, SD= 3.4; 61 offline gamers, Mage = 23.0 years, SD= 3.4) were assessed using the nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale Short Form (IGDS-SF9; Pontes & Griffiths, 2015). The Self-Presence Scale (Ratan & Dawson, 2015) and the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996) were also used to assess gamers’ levels of GAR and depressive symptoms respectively. Regression and moderation analyses revealed that depression and the GAR act as individual risk factors in the development of IGD over time. Furthermore, the GAR exacerbates the IGD risk effect of depression

Internet pornography viewing preference as a risk factor for adolescent Internet addiction: the moderating role of classroom personality factors

Background and aims: Adolescent Internet pornography viewing has been significantly increased in the last decade with research highlighting its association with Internet addiction (IA). However, there is little longitudinal data on this topic, particularly in relation to peer context effects. This study aimed to examine age- and context-related variations in the Internet pornography–IA association. Methods: A total of 648 adolescents, from 34 classrooms, were assessed at 16 years and then at 18 years to examine the effect of Internet pornography preference on IA in relation to the classroom context. IA was assessed using the Internet Addiction Test (Young, 1998), Internet pornography preference (over other Internet applications) was assessed with a binary (yes/no) question, and classroom introversion and openness to experience (OTE) with the synonymous subscales within the Five Factor Questionnaire (Asendorpf & Van Aken, 2003). Results: Three-level hierarchical linear models were calculated. Findings showed that viewing Internet pornography exacerbates the risk of IA over time, while classroom factors, such as the average level of OTE and introversion, differentially moderate this relationship. Discussion and conclusion: The study demonstrated that the contribution of Internet pornography preference (as an IA risk factor) might be increased in more extroverted classrooms and decreased in OTE classrooms

Internet Gaming Disorder: the interplay between physical activity and user–avatar relationship

Understanding both the risk and protective factors associated with Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) has been viewed by many in the gaming studies field as an area of research priority. The present study focused on the potential risk and protective effects of user-avatar (game figure) relationship and physical activity (PA) respectively. To address these aims, a cross-sectional and a longitudinal mixed-methods design were combined (comprising both psychological and physiological assessments). A sample of 121 emerging adult gamers (18%29 years) residing in Australia, who played massively multiplayer online games, were assessed in relation to their IGD behaviors using the nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form. Additionally, the Proto-Self-Presence scale was used to evaluate the extent to which gamers identified with the body of their avatar. Finally, a PA monitor (Fit Bit Flex ) measured levels of energy consumed during real world daily activities (active minutes). A number of linear regressions and moderation analyses were conducted. Findings confirmed that Proto-Self-Presence functioned as an IGD risk factor and that PA acted protectively, weakening the association between Proto-Self-Presence and IGD behaviors. Implications of these findings are discussed in relation to IGD treatment and gaming development aspects

A multilevel longitudinal study of experiencing virtual presence in adolescence: the role of anxiety and openness to experience in the classroom

Presence describes the feeling of reality and immersion that users of virtual/internet environments have. Importantly, it has been suggested that there are individual and contextual differences regarding susceptibility to presence. These aspects of presence have been linked to both beneficial and disadvantageous uses of the internet, such as online therapeutic applications and addictive internet behaviours. In the present study, presence was studied in relation to individual anxiety symptoms and classroom-level openness to experience (OTE) using a normative sample of 648 adolescents aged between 16 and 18 years. Presence was assessed with the Presence II questionnaire, anxiety symptoms with the relevant subscales of the SCL-90-R, and OTE with the Five Factor Questionnaire. A three-level hierarchical linear model was calculated. Results showed that experiencing presence in virtual environments dropped between the ages of 16 and 18 years. Additionally, although anxiety symptoms were associated with higher presence at 16 years, this association decreased with age. Results also demonstrated that adolescents in classrooms higher on OTE reported reduced level of experiencing presence. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed

Inter-relationships between ADHD, ODD and impulsivity dimensions in emerging adults revealed by network analysis: Extending the ‘trait impulsivity hypothesis’

Background The trait-impulsivity hypothesis posits impulsivity as the underlying substrate of Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptom expressions. The current study applied network analysis to evaluate the inter-relationships of dimensions within ADHD (inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity) and ODD (anger/irritable, vindictiveness, and argumentative/defiant behavior) with components of impulsivity as captured by the UPPS-P model (negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, sensation seeking, and positive urgency). Method A total of 324 emerging adults (women = 246) from the general community completed questionnaires covering these dimensions. Results Our findings showed that the ADHD and ODD dimensions were associated differentially with different types of impulsivity, in their unique patterns of network connectivities, a possibility that has had little attention in the trait-impulsivity hypothesis literature. Conclusions This study is the first to tease out the unique associations of the ADHD and ODD dimensions with different types of impulsivity, and in that way provide new contributions to our understanding of the existing trait impulsivity theory. Our findings would be especially relevant to those interested in understanding how different dimensions of trait impulsivity underly the ADHD and ODD dimensions

Measurement, prevalence, and psychological risk factors associated with addictive food consumption: development of a new food addiction scale and evidence from a national largescale sample

Background and aims: To date, a number of studies have investigated the prevalence and correlates of addictive food consumption. However, these studies have mostly relied on models that comprised a narrow range of variables in often small and heterogenous samples. The purpose of the present study was to comprehensively examine the measurement aspects, the prevalence, and the psychological correlates of addictive eating among a largescale national sample of Turkish adults. Method: Participants (N = 24,380, 50% men, M age = 31.79 years, age range = 18–81 years) completed a battery of tests including the Food Addiction Risk Questionnaire (FARQ), the Brief Symptom Inventory, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised. Results: According to analyses conducted, the FARQ had a uni-dimensional factor structure. Based on Item Response Theory (IRT) calculated cut-off scores, 2.3% of the participants were at risk of addictive eating patterns, whilst criteria varied in their discriminating ability. The correlates of addictive food consumption were being male, being younger, having lower education, presenting with higher alcohol use, psychiatric symptoms, alexithymia, positive/negative affect, and anxious attachment. Conclusion: These results suggest that a minority of Turkish community are at risk for addictive food consumption and that adverse psychological states promote this problematic behavior

Network analyses of internet gaming disorder symptoms and their links with different types of motivation

The study used regularized partial correlation network analysis (EBICglasso) to examine the structure of DSM-5 internet gaming disorder (IGD) symptoms (network 1); and the associations of the IGD symptoms in the network with different types of motivation as defined in the self-determination theory i.e., intrinsic motivation (engaging in an activity for something unrelated to the activity), identified regulation (engaging in the activity because it aligns with one’s values and/or goals), external regulation (engagement in activity being driven by external rewards and/or approval), and amotivation (engaging in an activity without often understanding why) (network 2). Participants were 968 adults from the general community. They completed self-rating questionnaires covering IGD symptoms and different types of motivation. The findings for network 1 showed mostly positive connections between the symptoms within the IGD network. The most central symptom was loss of control, followed by continuation, withdrawal symptoms, and tolerance. In general, these symptoms were more strongly connected with each other than with the rest of the IGD symptoms. The findings for network 2 showed that the different types of motivation were connected differently with the different IGD symptoms. For instance, the likeliest motivation for the preoccupation and escape symptoms is intrinsic motivation, and for negative consequences, it is low identified regulation. Overall, the findings showed a novel understanding of the structure of the IGD symptoms, and the motivations underlying them. The clinical implications of the findings for assessment and treatment of IGD are discussed