Evolution of nestling faeces removal in avian phylogeny

Nest sanitation-related traits have often been explained at the intraspecific level as reducing the probability of infection or detection by predators and parasites, but its evolution within the avian phylogeny is still poorly understood. We compiled detailed information of such traits for more than 400 bird species and, by means of modern comparative methodologies, we reconstructed the evolution of adults' contribution to removing their offspring's faeces and the production of faecal sacs by nestlings. Furthermore, because the functional hypotheses used to explain nest sanitation behaviour assume potential effects of brood size, body mass, nestling period and diet, we explored the association between these traits and those related to nest sanitation in a phylogenetically controlled framework. Our results suggest that parental removal of nestling faeces has driven the evolution of faecal sacs, while the ancestral states involved birds with faecal sacs removed by parents. These results support the long-held idea that faecal sacs facilitate the removal of faeces by parents. Moreover, we found that animal diets and small body sizes have favoured the evolution of faecal sacs suggesting the existence of some chemical and physical constraints in relation to the evolution of the mucous covering. Our results highlight the importance of nest sanitation in the evolution of birds and their life history characteristicsJ.D.I. was financed by a postdoctoral contract (TAHUB-104) from the program ‘Andalucía Talent Hub’ (cofunded by the European Union's Seventh Framework Program Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (COFUND) and the regional Government of Andalucía). Funding was partially provided by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (European funds (FEDER)) (CGL2013-48193-C3-1-P).Peer reviewe

Functional explanation of extreme hatching asynchrony: Male Manipulation Hypothesis

Hatching asynchrony in birds is considered an adaptation to facilitate brood reduction because under conditions of food scarcity, the smallest nestling usually dies soon after hatching, thereby minimizing parental effort. However, in species with extreme hatching asynchrony, the last hatchlings paradoxically experience a very low probability of survival and death can take so long that it can hardly be considered an adaptation. Here, we propose and experimentally tested a new adaptive hypothesis explaining the brood reduction paradox, namely the “Male Manipulation Hypothesis”. Our hypothesis suggests that by inducing asynchronous hatching, females increase the feeding requirements of the brood, which will induce males to increase provisioning effort. In addition, females may extend the period of male manipulation by feeding the smallest nestling just enough to sustain life. Our study showed that male common blackbirds (Turdus merula) increased their effort (i.e., number of food items per hour) in experimental asynchronous broods compared to synchronous broods, while females reduced their contribution, as predicted by the hypothesis

Egg-recognition abilities in non-incubating males:Implications for the evolution of anti-parasitic host defenses

In the field of brood parasitism, it has been traditionally assumed that only the incubating sex rejects parasitic eggs, but this assumption has been rarely explored despite its important implications for the evolutionary relationship between brood parasites and hosts. Here, we used information on previous egg-rejection experiments to explore the recognition abilities of both males and females of Eurasian blackbirds Turdus merula towards experimental eggs with a variable degree of mimicry. We found that both sexes recognized non-mimetic eggs, supporting the idea that visits to the nest can favor the evolution of rejection abilities. In contrast, only females recognized mimetic eggs, indicating that although recognition abilities can evolve in both sexes, they are subsequently refined in females probably due to their more frequent interaction with parasitic eggs. Clutch size affected nest attendance since females, but not males, spent more time at the nest and visited it more frequently in larger clutches. Finally, our recordings showed that blackbird males are able not only to recognize, but also to eject parasitic eggs. Our results provide new insights into the main anti-parasitic defense in birds, egg rejection, and highlight the need of considering the role of the non-incubating sex in egg-rejection studies.Significance statementGiven the high costs associated to avian brood parasitism, both sexes are expected to evolve anti-parasitic defenses. However, in those species in which only females incubate, females have traditionally been assumed to be the responsible for egg rejection. Here, using the Eurasian blackbird (Turdus merula), we investigated the existence of egg-rejection abilities in non-incubating males and compared them to those exhibited by females. We found that males can recognize non-mimetic eggs, although their recognition abilities were less fine-tuned compared to females, who also recognized mimetic eggs. Even though females were the responsible for most documented egg-ejection events, recordings confirmed that males could also be involved in egg ejection, which could have important implication for the evolution of anti-parasitic defenses in host populations

Fecal sacs attract insects to the nest and provoke an activation of the immune system of nestlings

Background: Nest sanitation is a widespread but rarely studied behavior in birds. The most common form of nest sanitation behavior, the removal of nestling feces, has focused the discussion about which selective pressures determine this behavior. The parasitism hypothesis, which states that nestling fecal sacs attract parasites that negatively affect breeding birds, was proposed 40 years ago and is frequently cited as a demonstrated fact. But, to our knowledge, there is no previous experimental test of this hypothesis. Results: We carried out three different experiments to investigate the parasitism hypothesis. First, we used commercial McPhail traps to test for the potential attraction effect of nestling feces alone on flying insects. We found that traps with fecal sacs attracted significantly more flies (Order Diptera), but not ectoparasites, than the two control situations. Second, we used artificial blackbird (Turdus merula) nests to investigate the combined attraction effect of feces and nest materials on arthropods (not only flying insects). Flies, again, were the only group of arthropods significantly attracted by fecal sacs. We did not detect an effect on ectoparasites. Third, we used active blackbird nests to investigate the potential effect of nestling feces in ecto- and endoparasite loads in real nestlings. The presence of fecal sacs near blackbird nestlings did not increase the number of louse flies or chewing lice, and unexpectedly reduced the number of nests infested with mites. The endoparasite prevalence was also not affected. In contrast, feces provoked an activation of the immune system as the H/L ratio of nestlings living near excrements was significantly higher than those kept under the two control treatments. Conclusions: Surprisingly, our findings do not support the parasitism hypothesis, which suggests that parasites are not the main reason for fecal sac removal. In contrast, the attraction of flies to nestling feces, the elevation of the immune response of chicks, and the recently described antimicrobial function of the mucous covering of fecal sacs suggest that microorganisms could be responsible of this important form of parental care behavior (microbial hypothesisPeer reviewe

Distribución geográfica del mono aullador rojo (Alouatta seniculus) y la fiebre amarilla en Colombia

Introduction: Colombia is a country with an important diversity of non-human primates, of which the red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) stands out because of its distribution and the role it plays in the occurrence of yellow fever. Objective: To describe the geographic co-occurrence of Alouatta seniculus and the reported presence of yellow fever. Materials and methods: We conducted a descriptive study. The reported presence of yellow fever in Colombia was obtained from the reports and bulletins issued by the Instituto Nacional de Salud, and the study by Segura, et al. (2013). The occurrence of A. seniculus was determined based on the data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and the Colombian Biodiversity Information System. A map of the occurrence was developed using the DIVA-GIS program, and the ecological niche model under current conditions was created with the Maxent program. Results: The departments with the highest occurrence of A. seniculus were Antioquia, Meta and Casanare; 69.5% of the departments with reported history of yellow fever had co-occurrence with A. seniculus. The ecological niche model showed that Antioquia, Bolívar, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Santander, Norte de Santander and Vichada had geographical portions with a probability rate nearing to 0.9 (90%). Conclusions: In 69.5% of the departments with a history of yellow fever there was co-occurrence with A. seniculus, which is relevant because non-human primates play a well-known role as natural reservoirs of the virus, and they might contribute to the occurrence of the yellow fever, which makes them very useful as sentinels.Introducción. Colombia es un país con gran diversidad de primates no humanos, entre los cuales se destaca el mono aullador rojo (Alouatta seniculus) por su distribución y el papel que desempeña en la presentación de la fiebre amarilla.Objetivo. Describir la coincidencia geográfica del hábitat del mono aullador rojo y la presencia de fiebre amarilla.Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio de carácter descriptivo. Los antecedentes de la fiebre amarilla en Colombia se obtuvieron de los informes y boletines del Instituto Nacional de Salud y del estudio de 2013 de Segura, et al. La presencia de A. seniculus se determinó con base en la plataforma Global Biodiversity Information Facility y el Sistema de Información sobre Biodiversidad de Colombia; los mapas se elaboraron con el programa Diva-Gis, y el modelo de nicho ecológico bajo las condiciones actuales, con el programa Maxent.Resultados. Los departamentos con mayor presencia de A. seniculus fueron Antioquia, Meta y Casanare; en 69,5 % de los departamentos con antecedentes de notificación de fiebre amarilla también había A. seniculus. El modelo de nicho ecológico evidenció que Antioquia, Bolívar, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Santander, Norte de Santander y Vichada tenían porciones de territorio con un índice de probabilidad cercano a 0,9 (90 %).Conclusiones. En 69,5 % de los departamentos con antecedentes de fiebre amarilla se registró la presencia de A. seniculus, lo cual resulta relevante por el papel que los primates no humanos desempeñan como reservorio natural del virus y por su contribución en la presentación de la fiebre amarilla, lo cual les confiere gran utilidad como centinelas

Migration behavior and performance of the great spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius)

The study of brood parasitism has traditionally been focused on the breeding period, but recent evidence suggests that it urgently needs a new spatio-temporal perspective to explore novel avenues on brood parasite-host co-evolutionary interactions. Many brood parasites are migrants, but their ecology outside their short breeding season is poorly known. The great spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) is one of the classical models in the study of brood parasitism, however, there is very little information on its migratory strategy, route and wintering grounds. Furthermore, there is no previous information on the geographical distribution of mortality and its causes in this species; information that is critical to understand the fluctuations in cuckoo populations and detect potential conservation risks. Using satellite tracking technology, we provide novel insight into the migratory behavior and performance of the great spotted cuckoo. We found individuals from southern Spain to be long-distance nocturnal migrants that use the East Atlantic Flyway for both post and pre-breeding migration, and that winter in the western Sahel. We found evidence of individual variation in their migration route, particularly regarding their post-breeding behavior in Spain. Our study also suggests that the south of Morocco is the most dangerous area due to a large number of deaths during the post-breeding migratory period. Furthermore, we found that natural predation seems to be the main cause of death, probably due to raptors, although human activities (i.e. hunting) could also played a role in the southern Mediterranean shore. Our study offers novel findings and challenges traditional ideas on the ecology of this species providing a good example of how the new spatio-temporal perspective can expand our knowledge on brood parasites.This study was partially funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad/ FEDER (research projects CGL2011-25634/BOS and CGL2017-89338-P to M.S.)

Territoriality and variation in home range size through the entire annual range of migratory great spotted cuckoos (Clamator glandarius)

Supplementary information accompanies this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41943-2.We would like to thank Juan José Castro for his help capturing cuckoos in Spain. Marco van der Velde provided excellent support for the lab analyses regarding sex determination of cuckoos. Two anonymous reviewers provided useful comments that helped to improve our manuscript.Variation in home range size throughout the year and its causes are not well understood yet. Migratory brood parasites offer a unique opportunity to incorporate this spatio-temporal dimension into the study of the factors regulating home range dynamics. Using satellite transmitters, we tracked sixteen migratory great spotted cuckoos (Clamator glandarius) of both sexes for up to three years. We constructed home ranges in all major staging areas, from the Spanish breeding areas to the African wintering grounds, analyzed their temporal and geographical variation and investigated their main potential determinants (e.g. food and host availability). We found that home ranges were significantly larger in the breeding area compared to non-breeding areas. Using NDVI as a proxy for food availability, we showed that breeding area home ranges have significantly lower food availability per km2 than home ranges elsewhere which could explain why cuckoos use alternative areas with higher food availability before initiating migration. We also found some evidence for sex differences. Additionally, we found no indications of territoriality in this species, providing novel information into the current debate on brood parasite territoriality. Overall, food availability seems to be an important factor regulating home range dynamics and influencing migratory patterns throughout the year in great spotted cuckoos.This study was partially funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad/FEDER (research projects CGL2011-25634/BOS and CGL2017- 89338-P)

Intervención docente y su incidencia en la mejora de variables motivacionales en la unidad didáctica en el colegio Santa María del Pilar.

El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo evaluar la intervención docente y su incidencia en la mejora de variables motivacionales en la unidad didáctica de Fútbol en el Colegio Santa María de Pilar. La unidad objeto de estudio la conforman los alumnos que cursan educación secundaria obligatoria en el colegio antes mencionado. Desde la perspectiva metodológica, se corresponde a una investigación descriptiva, evaluativa y con enfoque cuantitativo. La población que se toma como muestra son los alumnos de 1º ESO en el Colegio Santa María de Pilar, que cursan la unidad didáctica Fútbol, cuyas edades están comprendidas entre los 12 y 13 años. Se seleccionó una parte de un total de 68 alumnos/as. El instrumento diseñado se dividió en dos secciones; La primera permite conocer la percepción de la autonomía en el proceso de entrenamiento o enseñanza de Educación Física /Fútbol y la segunda se corresponde a una adaptación del instrumento TEOSQ, que consta de 13 ítems y permite conocer la orientación de meta hacia la tarea o hacia el ego. Este instrumento que se realizó con el propósito de observar el cambio registrado de manera comparativa, ya que ello refleja inicialmente la necesidad de realizar la intervención y luego las mejoras obtenidas con su implementación fue aplicado antes y después de la intervención con la muestra que conformaban los 68 alumnos. Se concluye con la obtención de datos positivos ya que, después de la intervención la mayor proporción de los alumnos señalan estar orientados a la tarea y percibir un clima favorable al aprendizaje. El clima motivacional al finalizar la intervención se orienta al aprendizaje y a la tarea, mientras que la percepción de la autonomía en la enseñanza de educación física, antes y después de la intervención, destaca los cambios significativos, ya que al acabar la intervención los alumnos se sienten motivados y son tomados en cuenta para las actividades, recibiendo un feedback con el profesor.<br /

Protocolo para monitorear la gobernabilidad del agua con base en indica-dores para cuencas rurales

The use of quality indicators guarantees the accurate monitoring of sustainability processes around the world. This work proposes a protocol to detail the indicators that make up the rural basin management index (GWI) in order to assess the degree of water management in a predominantly rural basin or region. The methodology contemplates the development of indicators to evaluate performance and its monitoring over time as the basis for planning. This research is based on the in situ evaluation of four municipalities within the department of Boyacá, Colombia, where there is a lack of a culture regarding the long-term planning and management of water and environmental resources. Water availability is the most sensitive factor in this context. This study raises the need for the use of monitoring systems in sustainability processes at the level of rural basins, as a result of the findings of four study cases, where processes with a low level of sustainability were evidenced.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version