Porez na ugljik kao mjera smanjenja emisije ugljičnog dioksida

Internalizacija eksternih troškova emisija ugljičnog dioksida (CO2) u obliku poreza na ugljik ima određene učinke na domaćinstva, industriju i cijelu ekonomiju. Dodatno opterećenje potrošnje energije u domaćinstvima porezom na ugljik socijalno je osjetljiva tema. Potrošnja energije, naime, vrlo se malo razlikuje po domaćinstvima i zbog toga bi linearno oporezivanje relativno više opteretilo domaćinstva s niskim dohocima. Zbog toga nastali uvjeti zahtijevaju progresivno oporezivanje. Usto, regresivni se učinak poreza na ugljik na energiju koja se upotebljava u domaćinstvima dijelomice izravnava s progresivnim učinkom poreza na ugljik na motorna goriva. Glede utjecaja na konkurentnost na osnovi rezultata međusektorskoga cjenovnog modela možemo zaključiti da porez na ugljik kratkoročno znači povećanje cijena u svim sektorima gospodarstva i zbog toga smanjenje konkurentnosti. Osnovna obilježja oporezivanja u skandinavskim državama vrlo su slična (indirektno oporezivanje emisije na temelju sadržaja ugljika u pojedinim gorivima, sve šira primjena trošarina na veći broj proizvoda, različito oporezivanje goriva tako da je porez na jedinicu ugljika što ujednačeniji, razlikovanje poreza prema potrošačima energije). Predmet oporezivanja su fosilna goriva, a katkad i potrošnja električne energije. Glede povezivanja poreza na ugljik s drugim porezima, u Švedskoj i u Danskoj su uz uvođenje tog poreza istodobno snizili postojeće energetske poreze, a u Finskoj i Nizozemskoj samo su ga dodali već uvedenim porezima. Zanimljivo je da se svugdje pokušava postići smanjenje emisije CO2 i istodobno porezni prihod upotrijebiti za snižavanje poreza na dohodak od rada, te na taj način povećati zapošljavanje. Među europskim državama koje su već uvele porez na ugljik Slovenija se, s 14,6 EUR po toni CO2, svrstava odmah iza Danske (14,3 EUR/t CO2) i Finske (13,7 EUR/t CO2), a Švedska s 42,1 EUR/t CO2 znatno prelazi taj prosjek. Porez na jedinicu goriva najviši je u Švedskoj

Economic Instruments for Reducing CO2 Emmissions and their Consequences

This contribution is an economic evaluation of various combinations of economic instruments for reducing CO2 emissions. The evaluation of effects linked to the achievement of Kyoto and post-Kyoto goals was developed by using the GEME3 general equilibrium model as developed within the framework of the 5. and 6. EU OP (project ENG2-CT- 1999-00002). We are calculating the effects of varying environmental policies for Slovenia based on variations in key macroeconomical markers. The most important finding is, that the loss of competitive advantages for Slovenia due to enforced environmental protection measures is not sizeable. The most favorable scenario in macroeconomic terms is the scenario of emissions trading in energy intensive sectors with a gradual transition to auctioning and carbon taxation in other sectors, whereby the tax revenues are returned to reduce the rate of social security contributions

Multiple Kriterien bei der Bewertung von Produktionsbereichen und ihres Einflusses auf das Wachstum der Lebensqualität

The pitfalls of distorted consumption patterns are increasingly clear in modern society. They are seen in the vicious circle of rushed work, earning and spending, which does not generally provide people with greater life satisfaction. As much research has indicated, a \u27happiness paradox\u27 occurs. In developed countries, at least, people are not becoming happier, although their material wealth or living standard has continually increased over time. This indicates that other non-material elements of well-being are at least as important as material elements for satisfaction with life. This suggests that a paradigm for social development must be directed away from increasing one-sided economic development at any cost towards sustainable development, if not to maximising the overall happiness in a society. This paper brings an innovative attempt to provide some guidance as to the question which changes in the production structure, beside changes in consumption pattern, could contribute more to higher quality of life. It uses an established method – multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) – to combine academic theoretical and empirical work on happiness with the policy goal of increasing quality of life and promoting sustainable development. The use of multiple criteria assessment ranks production sectors on the basis of their contribution to the individual and overall quality of life criteria. The paper addresses the case of Slovenia, though the method is equally applicable in principle to other countries.Zamke iskrivljenih uzoraka potrošnje sve više dolaze do izražaja u modernom društvu. Vidimo ih u začaranom krugu preopterećenosti poslom, zaradom i trošenjem, što u pravilu ljudima ne donosi veće životno zadovoljstvo. Istraživanja pokazuju da dolazi do "paradoksa sreće". Barem u razvijenim zemljama, ljudi ne postaju sretniji zbog toga što im se s vremenom stalno povećava materijalno bogatstvo ili životni standard. Ta nas činjenica upućuje na zaključak kako su za zadovoljstvo životom ostali nematerijalni faktori dobrobiti u najmanju ruku jednako važni kao i materijalni. Zaključujemo i to da paradigma društvenoga razvoja mora biti preusmjerena od sve većega jednostranog ekonomskog razvoja pošto-poto prema održivom razvoju, ako ne čak i prema postizanju najveće moguće opće razine sreće u društvu. Ovaj rad donosi originalan pristup pitanju koje promjene u strukturi produkcije, osim promjena uzoraka potrošnje, mogu pridonijeti ostvarivanju veće kvalitete života. Služimo se provjerenom metodom – MCDA (višekriterijska analiza odlučivanja) – kako bismo kombinirali teoretsku i empirijsku literaturu o sreći, s ciljem povećanja kvalitete života i promicanja održivog razvoja. Primjenom metode procjene, uz MCDA, rangiraju se sektori proizvodnje na temelju njihova doprinosa pojedinačnim kriterijima i općoj kvaliteti života. Rad se temelji na slovenskim iskustvima, a metoda bi se jednako uspješno mogla primijeniti i na druge zemlje.In der modernen Gesellschaft kommen deformierte Konsumverhaltensmuster immer stärker zum Ausdruck. Sie manifestieren sich in dem Teufelskreislauf von Arbeitsüberbelastung, häufig hohem Verdienst und zu hohen Ausgaben, was die Menschen in der Regel aber nicht zufriedener macht. Untersuchungen haben Forscher auf ein entsprechendes „Glücksparadox" aufmerksam gemacht: Zumindest in den Industriestaaten werden die Menschen trotz wachsenden Reichtums und höheren Lebensstandards nicht glücklicher. Daraus lässt sich schließen, dass andere, nichtmaterielle Faktoren menschlichen Wohlergehens mindestens ebenso wichtig sind wie materielle Faktoren. Ebenso muss das Paradigma der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung umgeleitet werden von einseitigem Wirtschaftswachstum um jeden Preis hin zu Nachhaltigkeit, wenn nicht gar zu größtmöglichem Glück innerhalb der Gesellschaft. Dieser Artikel bringt einen originellen Ansatz zur Frage, welche Veränderungen in der Produktionsstruktur – neben Veränderungen im Konsumverhaltensmuster – zu einer besseren Lebensqualität beitragen können. Unter Anwendung der bewährten MCDAMethode (Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis) kombinieren die Verfasser theoretische und empirische Werke zur Glücksforschung mit dem Ziel, die Lebensqualität zu steigern und das Konzept der Nachhaltigkeit voranzubringen. Die verschiedenen Produktionsbereiche werden rangiert je nachdem, wie sie einzelne Qualitätskriterien erfüllen und allgemein zur Lebensqualität beitragen. Der vorliegende Artikel gründet sich auf eine in Slowenien durchgeführte Untersuchung, könnte aber ohne Weiteres auch auf andere Länder angewandt werden

Social Feedback Loop in the Organic Food Purchase Decision-Making Process

To ensure the food industry continues to grow, it is vital to properly understand the factors that impact the purchasing of organic food. Research offers ambiguous findings about what drives consumers to decide to purchase food labeled as organic. This study advances the current theories on organic food-purchasing behavior, which overlook the importance of the two-way interaction of social norms and individual behavior, suggesting that the role of social norms may have been simplified. We suggest the causal processes associated with organic food decision-making involve the social feedback loop, a powerful force that takes the current state into the phase of transition. Positive feedback is key to maintaining and developing the sustainable behavior of the society, where an initial change in consumer behavior to purchase organic food is magnified when that change resounds through social norms. This is especially pronounced in Norway and Slovenia, where marketers can make more cost- and time-efficient use of persuasive messages and requests. In addition, we provide a comprehensive delineation of organic food purchase decision-making of close to 14,000 individuals from 15 countries that includes key psychosocial antecedents, along with Schwartz’s values, attitudes, social norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions. Using a mixed-methods approach (i.e., statistical matching, spatial econometrics, structural equation modeling), the present paper thus intends to add to the understanding of environmentally friendly purchase behavior beyond unidirectional and single-theory relationships

Payments for conservation of animal genetic resources in agriculture: One size fits all?

Maintaining minimum population sizes for local livestock breeds is a key goal in the conservation of animal genetic resources. As markets and livestock production systems have tended to favour a narrow base of high-output improved breeds, countries have had to use financial and other incentives to motivate breeders to keep local breeds. This paper explores the potential for more cost-effective alternatives to the most commonly used financial incentive, a fixed payment per animal or livestock unit. We compare the current fixed payment incentives for local breeds under the Slovenian Rural Development Programmme with those instead determined through a competitive tender approach. A stated preference survey was realised to determine the conditions under which breeders would be willing to participate in such an incentive system based on differentiated payments. Willingness to accept (WTA) payment for conservation was found to differ significantly from actual payment levels, being lower for the local sheep and goat breeds, and higher for the local pig breed. This suggests that implementation of differentiated payments would be more cost-effective; particularly when accompanied by measures to streamline administrative requirements, improve access to breeding stock and target support for local breed market valorisation (e.g., promotion of value chains based on designated quality schemes)

An Econometric Analysis of Willingness to Pay for Sustainable Development: A Case Study of the Volcji Potok Landscape Area. ENEPRI Working Paper, No. 53, 3 May 2007

When the market for a certain good is sufficiently competitive, economic activities can be studied through the market-pricing mechanism. Because this is usually not feasible in the case of environmental goods with an embodied natural and cultural heritage, particular methods for economic valuation of such goods have to be applied. This working paper presents the economic valuation of the Landscape Development and Protection Area of Volcji Potok, which is an important Slovenian cultural landscape with internationally recognised characteristics. For this purpose, we have chosen the method of contingent valuation and performed an econometric analysis of stated and true willingness-to-pay for targeted, sustainable development of the area. We have obtained the value of willingness-to-pay and identified its determinants. We have also attempted to control for different biases that arise in such analyses. Finally, we have used the adjusted, average individual value of willingness-to-pay to calculate the aggregate willingness-to pay

Economic Valuation of Non-Commodity Outputs of Agriculture

Economic valuation methods have already been used abroad successfully for solving above all local and nation-wide problems in rural (and also urban) areas with incorporated multifunctional natural and cultural goods, in a sense of their cultural, recreational, educational, ecological, aesthetical and existential values. The existence of these goods, in our case for the countryside, increases the welfare of users as well as of non-users when goods are nationally or globally important. Since environmental and cultural goods are in fact public goods, their use is mostly free, while managers or owners have some maintenance costs, which are usually covered from the budget. It is quite clear that allocation and distribution of these sources has to be properly justified. The same holds true for individual interventions into the space. This article suggests contingent valuation methods as a helping tool for making decisions on economic activities and interventions to the area

Dejavniki gibalne aktivnosti in z zdravjem povezane kakovosti življenja

Uvod: Gibalna aktivnost koristi telesnemu in duševnemu zdravju. Namen članka je ugotoviti dejavnike, ki vplivajo nanjo, in možne ukrepe za povečanje te dejavnosti. Cilj članka je spodbuditi strokovnjake s področij zdravja in športne dejavnosti k sodelovanju pri oblikovanju in izvajanju učinkovitih ukrepov za povečanje gibanja med prebivalstvom. Metode: Opravljen je bil pregled literature o dejavnikih, ki vplivajo na gibalno aktivnost in z zdravjem povezano kakovost življenja, ter o ukrepih, povezanih z njimi. V pregled so vključene raziskave, ki so objavljene v angleškem jeziku v obdobju 2000–2010 in evidentirane v Web of Science (SCI-EXPANDED ali SSCI). Članek povzema izsledke 46 objav, za potrebe teoretičnih izhodišč pa še dodatnih 43 objav. Rezultati: Na odločitev za gibanje vplivajo lastnosti posameznika in širšega družbenoekonomskega okolja. Bistveni so starost, spol in zdravstveni status posameznika. Pri posameznih skupinah populacije prepoznamo specifične dejavnike, ki vplivajo na odločitev za gibalno aktivnost. Učinkoviti ukrepi spodbujanja gibanja so zato usmerjeni na te skupine in izhajajo iz identificiranih dejavnikov. Diskusija in zaključek: Raznolikost omenjenih skupin in dejavnikov je osnova za načrtovanje preventivnih oziroma interventnih ukrepov. Smiselno je, da se pri organiziranju in izvajanju programov povežejo organizacije s področij zdravstva, športa in druge interesne skupine. Pri tem naj izkoristijo obstoječe zakonske okvire

Identification of the factors that affect the environmental administrative burden for businesses

Environmental regulations bring social benefits and contribute to lessening environmental damage. At the same time, due to the rapidly changing and complex environmental legislation, businesses incur costs, including administrative burdens. The article presents quantitative evidence on the factors that affect the compliance costs of environmental regulations. For this purpose, we used a binary model of logistic regression with the following predictors: enterprise characteristics, the relevance of environmental regulations for business operations, and the impact of environmental stimulus measures on compliance costs. The results of the study suggest that medium-sized enterprises are less likely to experience the environmental administrative burden than small enterprises. However, no difference has been found between large and small enterprises. Further, we show that environmental consents are an important determinant of the environmental administrative burden and that financial environmental measures can have a positive impact thereon

Zaznavanje razvoja trajnostnega kmetijstva

V konceptu trajnostnega kmetijstva se srečujeta obe področji upravljanja Ministrstva za kmetijstvo in okolje, z vsemi družbenimi implikacijami. Kot prispevek k oblikovanju, izvajanju in vrednotenju trajnostnih aktivnosti analiziramo v članku odnos javnosti in kmetov do trajnostnega razvoja v kmetijstvu. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da obstaja v Sloveniji podpora trajnostnemu kmetijstvu ne le na deklarativni ravni, ampak tudi v javnosti. Statistično značilne razlike med podporo splošne javnosti in kmetov pa so v dojemanju trajnostnega napredka kmetijstva na področju okolja. Vzporedno se kaže neskladje med načelno in dejansko podporo trajnostnemu kmetijstvu. Zato bi bilo smiselno razmisliti o spremembi fokusa ukrepov kmetijske politike iz okoljske na družbeno trajnost in preživetje kmeta, ob poudarjanju pozitivnih okoljskih informacij o slovenskem kmetijstvu