Using vector agents to implement an unsupervised image classification algorithm

Unsupervised image classification methods conventionally use the spatial information of pixels to reduce the effect of speckled noise in the classified map. To extract this spatial information, they employ a predefined geometry, i.e., a fixed-size window or segmentation map. However, this coding of geometry lacks the necessary complexity to accurately reflect the spatial connectivity within objects in a scene. Additionally, there is no unique mathematical formula to determine the shape and scale applied to the geometry, being parameters that are usually estimated by expert users. In this paper, a novel geometry-led approach using Vector Agents (VAs) is proposed to address the above drawbacks in unsupervised classification algorithms. Our proposed method has two primary steps: (1) creating reliable training samples and (2) constructing the VA model. In the first step, the method applies the statistical information of a classified image by k-means to select a set of reliable training samples. Then, in the second step, the VAs are trained and constructed to classify the image. The model is tested for classification on three high spatial resolution images. The results show the enhanced capability of the VA model to reduce noise in images that have complex features, e.g., streets, buildings. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland

Monitoring spatial and temporal variations of surface albedo on Saint Sorlin Glacier (French Alps) using terrestrial photography

Accurate knowledge of temperate glacier mass balance is essential to understand the relationship between glacier and climate. Defined as the reflected fraction of incident radiation over the whole solar spectrum, the surface broadband albedo is one of the most important variable in a glacier's mass balance. This study presents a new method to retrieve the albedo of frozen surfaces from terrestrial photography at visible and near infrared wavelengths. This method accounts for the anisotropic reflectance of snow and ice surfaces and uses a radiative transfer model for narrow-to-broadband conversion. The accuracy of the method was assessed using concomitant measurements of albedo during the summers 2008 and 2009 on Saint Sorlin Glacier (Grandes Rousses, France). These albedo measurements are performed at two locations on the glacier, one in the ablation area and the other in the accumulation zone, with a net radiometer Kipp and Zonen CNR1. The main sources of uncertainty are associated with the presence of high clouds and the georeferencing of the photographs

Recent trends in the timing of the growing season in New Zealand’s natural and semi-natural grasslands

We investigate the temporal dynamics of shifts in phenological responses of a range of key stages of the growing season in New Zealand’s three indigenous grassland types over the last 16 years (2001–2016). A near-daily Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series from MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) was used to extract five annual growth phenology indices, namely the Start, End, Length, Peak and Peak NDVI of a growing season. The start of the growing season advanced (i.e. happened earlier) by a median of 7.2, 6.0 and 8.8 days per decade in Alpine, Tall Tussock and Low Producing grassland, whereas the end of the season advanced by a median of 4.5, 0.4 and 0.4 days in the three types respectively. The length of growing season was extended by 3.2, 5.2 and 7.1 days per decade in these three grassland types. Over 86% of the investigated grassland areas showed an advancing (earlier) start of the growing season, and 74% of Alpine grassland showed a trend toward an earlier end of season. Over 63% of all grassland types showed an increase in growing season length. A trend toward earlier growing season peak and overall increasing NDVI in the three grassland types indicate a tendency for increasing vegetation vitality in grassland ecosystems in recent years. The start of growing season was correlated with atmospheric pressure (negatively) and precipitation (positively) changes in winter–spring months, while the timing of the season end is positively correlated with air temperature and solar radiation in summer–autumn months. Our study shows that different grassland types differ in magnitude–but not in direction–of their recent shifts in timing of key growing season stages with high-alpine grasslands showing the strongest response. This study highlights the usefulness of remote sensing for monitoring ecosystem-level phenological shifts over large areas and long time periods

Linking glacier annual mass balance and glacier albedo retrieved from MODIS data

Albedo is one of the variables controlling the mass balance of temperate glaciers. Multispectral imagers, such as MODerate Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the TERRA and AQUA satellites, provide a means to monitor glacier surface albedo. In this study, different methods to retrieve broadband glacier surface albedo from MODIS data are compared. The effect of multiple reflections due to the rugged topography and of the anisotropic reflection of snow and ice are particularly investigated. The methods are tested on the Saint Sorlin Glacier (Grandes Rousses area, French Alps). The accuracy of the retrieved albedo is estimated using both field measurements, at two automatic weather stations located on the glacier, and albedo values derived from terrestrial photographs. For summers 2008 and 2009, the root mean square deviation (RMSD) between field measurements and the broadband albedo retrieved from MODIS data at 250 m spatial resolution was found to be 0.052 or about 10% relative error. The RMSD estimated for the MOD10 daily albedo product is about three times higher. One decade (2000–2009) of MODIS data were then processed to create a time series of albedo maps of Saint Sorlin Glacier during the ablation season. The annual mass balance of Saint Sorlin Glacier was compared with the minimum albedo value (average over the whole glacier surface) observed with MODIS during the ablation season. A strong linear correlation exists between the two variables. Furthermore, the date when the average albedo of the whole glacier reaches a minimum closely corresponds to the period when the snow line is located at its highest elevation, thus when the snow line is a good indicator of the glacier equilibrium line. This indicates that this strong correlation results from the fact that the minimal average albedo values of the glacier contains considerable information regarding the relative share of areal surfaces between the ablation zone (i.e. ice with generally low albedo values) and the accumulation zone (i.e. snow with a relatively high albedo). As a consequence, the monitoring of the glacier surface albedo using MODIS data can provide a useful means to evaluate the interannual variability of the glacier mass balance. Finally, the albedo in the ablation area of Saint Sorlin Glacier does not exhibit any decreasing trend over the study period, contrasting with the results obtained on Morteratsch Glacier in the Swiss Alps

Corrigendum: Inexpensive Aerial Photogrammetry for Studies of Whales and Large Marine Animals

We describe a simple system enabling accurate measurement of swimming marine mammals and other large vertebrates from low-altitude single-frame photogrammetry via inexpensive modifications to a “prosumer” unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with gimballed micro4/3 camera and 25 mm lens. Image scale is established via an independently powered LIDAR/GPS data-logging system recording altitude and GPS location at 1 Hz. Photogrammetric calibration of the camera and lens allowed distortion parameters to be rigorously accounted for during image analysis, via a custom-programmed Graphical User Interface (GUI) running in MATLAB. The datalogger, camera calibration methods and measurement software are adaptable to a wide range of UAV platforms. Mean LIDAR accuracy, measured from 10 bridges 9–39 m above water, was 99.9%. We conducted 136 flights in New Zealand's subantarctic Auckland Islands to measure southern right whales. Mean lengths of 10 individual whales, each photographed between 7 and 15 times, had CVs (SD/mean) ranging from 0.5 to 1.8% (mean = 1.2%). Repeated measurements of a floating reference target showed a mean error of c.1%. Our system is relatively inexpensive, easily put together, produces accurate, repeatable measurements from single vertical images, and hence is applicable to a wide range of ecological questions in marine and terrestrial habitats

Distributed vs. semi-distributed simulations of snowpack dynamics in alpine areas: case study in the upper Arve catchment, French Alps, 1989–2015

We evaluated distributed and semi-distributed modeling approaches to simulating the spatial and temporal evolution of snow and ice over an extended mountain catchment, using the Crocus snowpack model. The distributed approach simulated the snowpack dynamics on a 250-m grid, enabling inclusion of terrain shadowing effects. The semi-distributed approach simulated the snowpack dynamics for discrete topographic classes characterized by elevation range, aspect, and slope. This provided a categorical simulation that was subsequently spatially re-projected over the 250-m grid used for the distributed simulations. The study area (the upper Arve catchment, western Alps, France) is characterized by complex topography, including steep slopes, an extensive glaciated area, and snow cover throughout the year. Simulations were carried out for the period 1989–2015 using the SAFRAN meteorological forcing system. The simulations were compared using four observation datasets including point snow depth measurements, seasonal and annual glacier surface mass balance, snow covered area evolution based on optical satellite sensors, and the annual equilibrium-line altitude of glacier zones, derived from satellite images. The results showed that in both approaches the Crocus snowpack model effectively reproduced the snowpack distribution over the study period. Slightly better results were obtained using the distributed approach because it included the effects of shadows and terrain characteristics

Repeat mapping of snow depth across an alpine catchment with RPAS photogrammetry

Being dynamic in time and space, seasonal snow represents a difficult target for ongoing in situ measurement and characterisation. Improved understanding and modelling of the seasonal snowpack requires mapping snow depth at fine spatial resolution. The potential of remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS) photogrammetry to resolve spatial variability of snow depth is evaluated within an alpine catchment of the Pisa Range, New Zealand. Digital surface models (DSMs) at 0.15&thinsp;m spatial resolution in autumn (snow-free reference) winter (2 August 2016) and spring (10 September 2016) allowed mapping of snow depth via DSM differencing. The consistency and accuracy of the RPAS-derived surface was assessed by the propagation of check point residuals from the aero-triangulation of constituent DSMs and via comparison of snow-free regions of the spring and autumn DSMs. The accuracy of RPAS-derived snow depth was validated with in situ snow probe measurements. Results for snow-free areas between DSMs acquired in autumn and spring demonstrate repeatability yet also reveal that elevation errors follow a distribution that substantially departs from a normal distribution, symptomatic of the influence of DSM co-registration and terrain characteristics on vertical uncertainty. Error propagation saw snow depth mapped with an accuracy of ±0.08&thinsp;m (90&thinsp;% c.l.). This is lower than the characterization of uncertainties on snow-free areas (±0.14&thinsp;m). Comparisons between RPAS and in situ snow depth measurements confirm this level of performance of RPAS photogrammetry while also highlighting the influence of vegetation on snow depth uncertainty and bias. Semi-variogram analysis revealed that the RPAS outperformed systematic in situ measurements in resolving fine-scale spatial variability. Despite limitations accompanying RPAS photogrammetry, which are relevant to similar applications of surface and volume change analysis, this study demonstrates a repeatable means of accurately mapping snow depth for an entire, yet relatively small, hydrological catchment ( ∼ 0.4&thinsp;km2) at very high resolution. Resolving snowpack features associated with redistribution and preferential accumulation and ablation, snow depth maps provide geostatistically robust insights into seasonal snow processes, with unprecedented detail. Such data will enhance understanding of physical processes controlling spatial distributions of seasonal snow and their relative importance on varying spatial and temporal scales.</p

Perennial snow and ice variations (2000–2008) in the Arctic circumpolar land area from satellite observations

Perennial snow and ice (PSI) extent is an important parameter of mountain environments with regard to its involvement in the hydrological cycle and the surface energy budget. We investigated interannual variations of PSI in nine mountain regions of interest (ROI) between 2000 and 2008. For that purpose, a novel MODIS data set processed at the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing at 250 m spatial resolution was utilized. The extent of PSI exhibited significant interannual variations, with coefficients of variation ranging from 5% to 81% depending on the ROI. A strong negative relationship was found between PSI and positive degree‐days (threshold 0°C) during the summer months in most ROIs, with linear correlation coefficients (r) being as low as r = −0.90. In the European Alps and Scandinavia, PSI extent was significantly correlated with annual net glacier mass balances, with r = 0.91 and r = 0.85, respectively, suggesting that MODIS‐derived PSI extent may be used as an indicator of net glacier mass balances. Validation of PSI extent in two land surface classifications for the years 2000 and 2005, GLC‐2000 and Globcover, revealed significant discrepancies of up to 129% for both classifications. With regard to the importance of such classifications for land surface parameterizations in climate and land surface process models, this is a potential source of error to be investigated in future studies. The results presented here provide an interesting insight into variations of PSI in several ROIs and are instrumental for our understanding of sensitive mountain regions in the context of global climate change assessment

Dynamique du Cd disponible du sol sous l'influence de l'hyperaccumulateur Thlaspi caerulescens

The Zn- and Cd- hyperaccumulator Thlaspi cærulescens is one of the most promising candidates for in situ phytoextraction. This work was undertaken to better understand the interactions between the bioavailable Cd in soil and the hyperaccumulation of Cd by T. cærulescens. Contrasted populations of T. cærulescens were studied in their natural environment and the relationships between the soil parameters, particularly the metal bioavailability, and hyperaccumulation were analysed. Four populations were selected according to their ability to hyperaccumulate Cd. Hundred plants of each population were cultivated in pots to assess genetic differences. The four populations were also grown under natural climatic conditions. The effect of T. cærulescens on the bioavailable compartments of soil metals was studied during successive crops in a lysimetric device equiped to follow the evolution of the soil-water-plant compartments of metals. Our results demonstrated that Cd accumulation by T. cærulescens is mainly explained by the soil Cd bioavailability. The Cd concentration in shoots could be predicted using easily and quickly measurable soil parameters (CaCl2 exctractable Cd, pH and CEC). Genetic differences between populations were also recorded. The Cd and Zn hyperaccumulating populations seemed to differ from the Ni hyperaccumulating populations by a particularly efficient transporter of Cd in the root cell membrane. Also, some Cd hyperaccumulating populations appeared to present a more efficient Cd absorption and translocation than others. The Cd absorption was independant of Zn absorption which suggested different mecanisms. It was also shown that a small fraction of the Cd extracted by T. cærulescens originated from the non available soil Cd compartment. During the phytoextraction, the plant firstly deplete the soluble compartment, which is then replenished by the bioavailable compartment. This one would be replenished by the less available compartment according to the buffer capacity of the soil. Finaly, we demonstrated that it is possible to predict Cd phytoextraction based on a simplified model using soil Cd bioavailaility, soil pH, CEC and T. cærulescens biomass production.La plante hyperaccumulatrice de Zn et de Cd, Thlaspi cærulescens, est l’un des candidats les plus prometteurs en vue d’une application à grande échelle de la phytoextraction. Ce travail a été entrepris afin de mieux comprendre les interactions entre la fourniture des métaux par la phase solide du sol, ou biodisponibilité, et l’hyperaccumulation du Cd par T. cærulescens dans le cadre de scénarios de phytoextraction. Des populations contrastées de T. cærulescens ont été étudiées dans leur milieu naturel (friches industrielles de mines de Zn/Pb et de fonderie de Zn ; site de serpentine à concentration élevée du Ni géochimique). Les relations existant entre les paramètres du sol, et en particulier la biodisponibilité des métaux, et l’hyperaccumulation chez ces plantes ont été analysées. Quatre populations ont été sélectionnées pour leur aptitude différente à accumuler les métaux. Cent individus de chaque population ont été cultivés en vases de végétation afin de mettre en évidence des différences génétiques entre les populations. Des individus des mêmes populations ont également été cultivés en conditions climatiques réelles. L’impact de T. cærulescens sur le compartiment biodisponible des métaux a été étudié à l’aide de cultures successives d’une même population dans des systèmes lysimétriques équipés pour suivre l’évolution des compartiments eau-sol-plantes des métaux. Nos résultats montrent que la concentration du Cd biodisponible est le principal facteur gouvernant l’absorption du métal. Ainsi, il est possible de prédire la concentration du Cd dans les feuilles de T. cærulescens à partir de paramètres du sol facilement et rapidement mesurables (Cd extractible au CaCl2, pH et CEC). Nous avons également mis en évidence des différences génétiques. Les populations hyperaccumulatrices de Cd et de Zn se distingueraient alors de celles hyperaccumulatrices de Ni par la présence d’un transporteur efficace du Cd dans la membrane plasmique racinaire des plantes. Parmi les populations hyperaccumulatrices de Cd, certaines présenteraient une absorption et une translocation du Cd plus efficace et indépendante de l’absorption du Zn, suggérant des mécanismes distincts. Il a également été montré qu’une faible fraction du Cd prélevé par T. cærulescens proviendrait du compartiment du Cd du sol non labile. Au cours de la phytoextraction, les plantes agissent en premier lieu sur le compartiment soluble des métaux du sol, celui-ci étant réapprovisionné par le compartiment biodisponible. En fonction de la capacité tampon des terres, le compartiment biodisponible du Cd pourra être plus ou moins réapprovisionné par ceux moins échangeables. Enfin, nous avons démontré qu’il était possible de prédire le rendement d’extraction du Cd à partir d’un modèle simplifié prenant en compte la biodisponibilité du Cd, la CEC, le pH et la production de biomasse par T. cærulescens

Dynamique du Cd disponible du sol sous l'influence de l'hyperaccumulateur Thlapsi caerulescens

Non disponible / Not availableLa plante hyperaccumulatrice de Zn et de Cd, Thlaspi caerulescens, est l'un des candidats les plus prometteurs en vue d'une application à grande échelle de la phytoextraction. Ce travail a été entrepris afin de mieux comprendre les interactions entre la fourniture des métaux par la phase solide du sol, ou biodisponibilité, et l'hyperaccumulation du Cd par T. caerulescens dans le cadre de scénarios de phytoextraction. Des populations contrastées de T. caerulescens ont été étudiées dans leur milieu naturel (friches industrielles de mines de Zn/Pb et de fonderie de Zn ; site de serpentine à concentration élevée du Ni géochimique). Les relations existant entre les paramètres du sol, et en particulier la biodisponibilité des métaux, et l'hyperaccumulation chez ces plantes ont été analysées. Quatre populations ont été sélectionnées pour leur aptitude différente à accumuler les métaux. Cent individus de chaque population ont été cultivés en vases de végétation afin de mettre en évidence des différences génétiques entre les populations. Des individus des mêmes populations ont également été cultivés en conditions climatiques réelles. L'impact de T. caerulescens sur le compartiment biodisponible des métaux a été étudié à l'aide de cultures successives d'une même population dans des systèmes Iysimétriques équipés pour suivre l'évolution des compartiments eau- sol-plantes des métaux. Nos résultats montrent que la concentration du Cd biodisponible est le principal facteur gouvernant l'absorption du métal. Ainsi, il est possible de prédire la concentration du Cd dans les feuilles de T. caerulescens à partir de paramètres du sol facilement et rapidement mesurables (Cd extractible au CaCI2, pH et CEC). Nous avons également mis en évidence des différences génétiques. Les populations hyperaccumulatrices de Cd et de Zn se distingueraient alors de celles hyperaccumulatrices de Ni par la présence d'un transporteur efficace du Cd dans la membrane plasmique racinaire des plantes. Parmi les populations hyperaccumulatrices de Cd, certaines présenteraient une absorption et une translocation du Cd plus efficace et indépendante de l'absorption du Zn, suggérant des mécanismes distincts. Il a également été montré qu'une faible fraction du Cd prélevé par T. caerulescens proviendrait du compartiment du Cd du sol non labile. Au cours de la phytoextraction, les plantes agissent en premier lieu sur le compartiment soluble des métaux du sol, celui-ci étant réapprovisionné par le compartiment biodisponible. En fonction de la capacité tampon des terres, le compartiment biodisponible du Cd pourra être plus ou moins réapprovisionné par ceux moins échangeables. Enfin, nous avons démontré qu'il était possible de prédire le rendement d'extraction du Cd à partir d'un modèle simplifié prenant en compte la biodisponibilité du Cd, la CEC, le pH et la production de biomasse par T. caerulescens