Trypanosoma congolense: chemotherapy and immunity to cyclically transmitted infections in rabbits

This thesis describes studies on curative and prophylactic effects of diminazene aceturate and isometamidium chloride and development of sterile immunity in rabbits infected with Trypanosoma congolense by bites from infected Glossina morsitans morsitans or by intradermal inoculation of cultured metacyclic trypanosomes.It was shown that chemotherapy influences the development of the trypanosome chancre. Rabbits treated with 7 mg/kg diminazene acetur¬ ate at up to three days after infective tsetse bite did not develop chancres, while in animals treated 4-7 days post-infection, chancres appeared but were reduced in size and persisted for a short while. Treatment at 8-10 days after infection did not influence chancre size appreciably.There were indications that efficacy of chemotherapy was related to the timing of treatment after infection and hence the stage of development of parasites in the trypanosome chancre. Thus 50% of rabbits treated with 7 mg/kg diminazene aceturate at 8-10 days post¬ infection had relapses in parasitaemia, whereas animals treated with a similar dose of the drug at 0-7 or 12-42 days after infection were invariably curedThere was indirect evidence that in drug treated rabbits in which relapses in parasitaemia occurred, trypanosomes may have originated from extravascular sites in the skin. This was indicated by develop¬ ment of secondary chancres in some treated animals which later showed relapse parasitaemia.The mode of action of diminazene aceturate on chancre trypanosomes was studied. There was no detectable increase in parasitaemia, following treatment at the time of maximum trypanosome development in chancres. This indicated that diminazene aceturate does not act on chancre trypanosomes by causing their release into the circulatory system. In addition, intact and degenerating trypanosomes could be detected histologically in chancres removed at three hours and at 24 hours post-treatment but not at 2-4 days post-treatment. As there was no evidence of phagocytosis of trypanosomes it was concluded that diminazene aceturate kills chancre trypanosomes in situ.Studies on the prophylactic effects of diminazene aceturate and isometamidium chloride showed that 7 mg/kg diminazene aceturate has no prophylactic effect against cyclically transmitted T. congolense even at three hours after treatment, and isometamidium chloride had a prophylactic effect of less than three weeks. In some animals under isometamidium or diminazene prophylaxis, chancres developed without subsequent development of parasitaemia.Immunity to homologous challenge with T. congolense after infection and treatment with diminazene aceturate was shown to depend on the tim¬ ing of treatment in relation to the primary infection. Rabbits treated at day 0-12 days after infective tsetse bite were susceptible, whereas those treated at 14 or more days after infective tsetse bite, when parasitaemia was readily detectable, were immune. Similar results were obtained using cultured metacyclic trypanosomes. It was shown that effective immunity against homologous challenge by infected tsetse flies developed in animals treated at 14 days but not at 7 days after infection with cultured metacyclic trypanosomes. This development of immunity following inoculation of cultured metacyclic trypanosomes points to their potential use in immunisation against trypanosomiasis

The effect of training and job interruptions on logging crews’ safety in Tanzania’s plantation forests: the case of SUA training forest, Olmotonyi, Arusha

A study was carried out in Sokoine University of Agriculture Training Forest to assess the effect of training and job interruptions on logging crews’ safety during tree cutting using chainsaw and two-man cross cut saws. For each cutting method, experienced and inexperienced crews were studied before training, after training and after break using time study techniques for nine months at intervals of three months. Results show that crews seldom use safety gears. Inexperienced crews suffered more health risks than experienced crews. Most of occupational risks encountered by inexperienced chainsaw operators were from falling objects (mostly dead branches and pods), falling trees, walking between trees with a running chainsaw as well as walking carelessly on logs and felled trees during bucking. Experienced two-man cross cut saw operators committed fewer risks and suffered about 37% fewer injuries compared to inexperienced crew. Chainsaw operators suffered relatively more injuries compared to two-man cross cut saw operators. After training, there were significant improvements in both methods, but more so for the inexperienced crews. The level of safety consciousness decreased with increased accidents and or risks after the break for both crew categories. Inexperienced crews suffered more injuries. On resuming operations after the break, inexperienced crews seemed to adhere to safety rules more than the experienced ones. It is concluded that provision of appropriate safety gears as well as delivery of on job training are important measures for improved performance and lowering accidents and injuries to logging crews.Key words: Tree cutting, chainsaw, twoman cross cut saw, training, safety, accidents, Tanzania

REDD++ piloting process in the Zanzibar Islands, Tanzania: The assessment of the community's perceptions and attitudes

Introduction of REDD+ initiatives in Tanzania underwent a series of preparation activities including launching and implementation the National REDD+ pilot projects. While the piloting have now lasted for four years the local communities’ awareness, perceptions and their attitudes towards these initiatives have not been adequately studied in Tanzania. This study therefore was carried out to assess the community perception and determine social sustainability of REDD+ initiatives in Zanzibar Islands. Specifically the study aims to determine the levels of community awareness, perception, participation and attitudes towards this initiative. Five Shehia (Villages) which are Kumbaurembo, Muyuni C, Mtende, Chuchumile and Hanyegwamchana were involved in the study. Data were collected through key informant interviews, focus group discussions and household questionnaire survey. Content analysis was used to analyse qualitative information from focus group discussions and in depth interviews, while indexes were used to determine the levels of community participation, awareness and attitudes. Findings revealed a high level of community awareness (63.3%) with moderately high level of participation as shown by 47.8%. Results show a favourable attitude of about 77% despite the low levels of education, over dependence of forest resources and small size of land holdings that would be expected to affect communities’ perception, attitudes. The study concludes that communities in Zanzibar islands have positive attitude and perceptions on conservation initieatives which is a good indicator for sustainability of REDD+ initiatives. However, in a bid to sustain the communities’ continued involvement, there should be continued capacitation of the communities to be in full control of their resources as well as ensuring equitable benefit sharing.  Key Words: REDD+, Community perception, Attitudes, Zanzibar, Tanzani

LAND AND CULTURE AS SYMBOLS OF REMEMBRANCE, ANCESTRY, RITUALS AND INITIATIONS The case of Kihamba, Kyungu and Kifunyi among the Chagga of Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Kyungu[1] and Kifunyi[2] are revered places for any Chagga family. It is located within a Chagga Kihamba and is believed to be the origin or first settlement of the clan, marked by the presence of a significant tree and traditional Chagga sacred plant—isale. Within the Kyungu and Kifunyi landscapes, one finds a scatter of material remains, including potsherds, bones, bottles and pieces of clothes. These material cultures and local narratives signify spiritual practices, rituals and remembrance ceremonies around the Kyungu and Kifunyi area. Elders and spiritual leaders meet under Kyungu to perform such rituals and other related ceremonies to remember clan ancestors and ask for ancestral interventions to resolve hunger, droughts and other natural calamities. Following these community—Kyungu and Kifunyi interactions, the landscape in which isale forms a part has acquired a special status serving as a medium through which the living communicates with the dead. Although there is a slight alteration in the performance and continuation of these practices due to the invention of modern religions such as Christianity, these activities continue to take place under and around these spots. The community still cherish and maintains these places as heritage and a connector between the dead and the living. Against this background, this paper seeks to show how land and culture among the Chagga of Kilimanjaro, NE Tanzania are markers of deep-time spirituality and human-environment interactions. This paper argues that land and culture are both symbols and means of identity creation in which social relations between ancestors, the living and even the environment are constructed and prosper. For consistency, this paper uses Kyungu and Kifunyi. [1] Sometimes known as Kiungu or Kyungu[2] Sometimes known as Mbuoni, Mbuonyi, Kifuunyi or Ukuuny

Management as Critical Factor in Determining Investment Performance of Social Security Funds in Tanzania: A Case of NSSF Head Office Dar es Salaam,

The study was done to investigate management as a critical factor in determining investment performance of social security funds in Tanzania using NSSF head quarter DSM as an area of the study. The study used survey design whereby 58 respondents were selected. The study used questionnaires as the main method of data collection and the analysis was made using pie charts and cross-tabulation. The findings revealed that safety was a critical factor in determining investment performance of social security funds in Tanzania as most of the majority of respondents showed. The income was found to be a critical factor in determining investment performance of social security funds in Tanzania. The study too found that capital growth was a critical facto

Tree species diversity under pastoral and farming systems in Kilosa District, Tanzania

Loss of tree diversity through improper land use practices such as overgrazing and poor farming practices in tropical areas and other natural ecosystems is one of today's most worrying environmental problems. This study was conducted to assess the impact of farming and pastoralism on tree species diversity in two forests each owned and managed by pastoral and farming communities in Kilosa District. Household survey solicited information on perceptions of local communities on drivers that influenced tree stocking and diversity of their forests. A forest inventory was conducted involving twenty circular in each system plots laid along two transects. In each plot, trees and shrubs with DBH > 5 cm were measured for DBH and height. A total of 48 different species were recorded out of which 75%were tree species and 25% shrubs species. The forest under pastoral system had a Shannon - Wiener Index (H’) of 3.13 as opposed to farming system with an index of 2.05. Average stocking for the forest under pastoral system was 235 stem ha-1, whereas that of farming system was 209 stem ha-1. Basal areas of 13m2ha-1 and 6m2 ha-l were recorded for forests under pastoral and farming systems respectively. Standing volume showed the same tendency where 216m3ha-1 was recorded from the forest under pastoral system as opposed to 100.12 m3ha-1 from the other forest. The high loss of species diversity and stocks particularly in the forest under farming system were attributed to anthropogenic disturbances including cutting trees for farm expansion, charcoal making and house construction. Although the assessment on the community perception on the loss of tree diversity in the area showed conflicting interests between the two societies each blaming activities of each community as major causes of forest degradation. This calls for more enforcement of rules and regulations and tree planting in degraded areas predominantly in the farming communities. The study further revealed that the existing tensions over land resource ownership between the two communities of farmers and pastoralists may be contributing factors of unsustainable use of tree species and other forest resources. It is recommended that interventions should be done to settle conflicts over land resource ownership and management between the two villages as well control proliferation and dominance of Acacia nilotica as a way to improve pasture and improve species diversity in the area. Key words: Tree stocking - rules and regulations - anthropogenic disturbance

The effectiveness of a novel steaming method in improving small scale syobean dehulling

Locally grown Black (Ex Songea) and Bossier soybeans, Glycine max (L.) varieties were used in a study to determine the effect of steaming on soybean dehulling properties. Prior to carrying out the experiment, soybeans were sorted and cleaned. This was followed by the determination of oil content, weight per grain, bulk density and moisture content before conditioning the seeds ready for dehulling. Proximate analysis showed that the Black (Ex Songea) soybeans had an average oil content, weight per grain, bulk density and moisture content of 18.36%, 1.45 g, 738 kg/m3 and 12.25% respectively. On the other hand, Bossier variety of soybeans were found to have an average oil content of 20.21%, weight per grain of 1.95g, bulk density of 789 kg/m3, and moisture content of 12.75%. Steaming was done using a double pot steamer and was conducted at 5, 10 and 15 minutes interval followed by solar drying for 24 hours using unsteamed soybeans as a control. The steaming procedure involved placing 500g of soybeans in the upper pot then tight fitting it on the lower pot that contained 4 litres of boiling water. Refilling of water was done every after 20 minutes of steaming to bring the water level to its original mark. After steaming, soybeans were dried in a cabinet solar drier capable of reaching temperatures in the range of 43- 46oC. The dehulling operation was carried out for 5 minutes using a Tangential Abrasive Dehulling Device (TADD) machine. The efficiency of steaming method was determined based on the dehulling effectiveness index (η). Results showed that steaming followed by solar drying tends to significantly (

Thin- layer drying of diced cassava roots

Fresh cassava (Manihot spp) roots were obtained from a farm and used in this study. They were peeled and diced using a special dicing machine into cubes of side 0.5 cm. The cubes were dried in thin layers (one to three layers) in a drier that was specifically designed and fabricated inthe Department of Agricultural Engineering and Land Planning, Morogoro, Tanzania for the purpose. The drier had a motor driven fan, a heater and a tray chamber, with thermometers for determining entry and exit temperature (dry and wet bulb) conditions of the air. The input variables were: depth of thin layer (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 cm), drying temperature of the air (55 and 65 oC) and drying time (from 0 min until the sample attained equilibrium, at intervals of 25 min). The response variable was themoisture content of the cassava cubes. Weather conditions during the experiments were also monitored. A parallel sun drying experiment was carried out to compare thin layer drying on the sun and thin layer drying in the fabricated dryer. For the fresh cassava that was used in the experiments, a duplicate sample was placed in an oven at 75 oC for 7 hours to determine the initial moisture content. The results indicated that the average moisture content of fresh cassava roots was about 75.4%(w.b.). Both temperature and depth of layers were found to affect the drying characteristics of cassava cubes, with single layer and higher drying temperature giving faster approaches to equilibrium moisture content. Comparing sun drying of one layer at an average temperature of 25 oCwith artificial drying at the above named temperatures, it was found that sun drying took 2 to 3 days to reduce the moisture content to Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC), while this was achieved within 150 min and 125 min with artificial drying at 55 oC and 65 oC respectively. The generallyaccepted thin layer drying equations were fitted to the drying data of cassava cubes, and the Page model was found to agree with the drying data of one, two and three layers with high accuracy for artifial drying, but not for sundrying. The exponential model only agreed accurately with drying of one layer

Knowledge and Awareness of Malaria and Mosquito Biting Behaviour in Selected Sites within Morogoro and Dodoma regions Tanzania.

In Tanzania there has been a downward trend in malaria prevalence partly due to use of insecticide-treated bed nets for protection against Anopheles mosquitoes. However, residual malaria transmission attributed to early biting behaviour of malaria vectors is being reported. Knowledge of mosquito feeding behaviour is key to improvements in control approaches. The present study aimed to assess knowledge and awareness on malaria and malaria vectors in-Morogoro and Dodoma regions of Tanzania. A cross sectional study was undertaken in selected sites in Morogoro and Dodoma Tanzania. A structured questionnaire was administered to 218 randomly selected households from each of which the head or second in/charge and the most senior primary school child were interviewed. A total of 400 participants of whom 56 % were females, were recruited into the study. Their ages ranged between nine and 58 years. Among the participants, 70.7 % had primary school education and the rest attained secondary school (16.8 %), university/college (4.0 %) and not attended school at all (8.5 %). Fifteen per cent of the participants were employed, while 45.5 % were self-employed and 39.5 % were studying. Overall, 58.5 % of respondents were knowledgeable of malaria and its vector. However, 78.8 % were not aware that early mosquito bites can transmit malaria and 86.5 % said that only midnight-biting mosquito bite was responsible for malaria transmission. The majority (66 %) of respondents visited a health facility on observing malaria symptoms while 15.8 % took anti-malaria drugs without medical consultation. This study has shown that Anopheles is well known as the night-biting vector of malaria. The majority of participants were not aware of changed biting behaviour of malaria-transmitting mosquitoes and that early outdoor mosquito bite is a risk of malaria transmission. School children have shown a better understanding of malaria and its vector. Therefore, more awareness of Anopheles feeding behaviour is needed

Survey Report on the Establishment of National Cooperative Archive in Tanzania: Prospects and Challenges

Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies in collaboration with Cooperative College of Manchester launched a project known as “Preserving East African Co-operative Heritage (PEACH)” in January 2011. As the first step in implementing this project a team composed of staff from MUCCoBS and Cooperative College, Manchester conducted a survey in cooperatives and other stakeholders in seven regions of Tanzania. This survey was a pilot study aiming to identify the extent, availability, location and preservation needs of co-operative archives in Tanzania and establish potentials and challenges to establish National Cooperative archive. The surveys established the existence of a long range of cooperative records with archival value and therefore validated the intention of MUCCoBS to establish National Cooperative Archive. However many archival materials identified, were mostly in a bad condition, they are fragile, dirty, strained, brittle, crumbling, sometimes bent and full of rusty metal clips and they are stored in dirty rooms. Most cooperatives visited do not know the difference between archival records with long term value and records with no value that can be destroyed. The survey established that all cooperative stakeholders are supporting the idea of establishing National Cooperative Archive and are willing to surrender the archival materials to MUCCoBS for preservation. It was observed that there is high commitment of the management of MUCCoBS to establish the cooperative archive and the staff of the College needs some capacity building to acquire the required competency to manage the cooperative archive to be established. As a way forward it was proposed that MUCCoBS should strive to establish the repository to be used to preserve cooperative archive. Key words: cooperative archive, cooperative society, repository, records, surve