Probabilistic assessment of deep geothermal resources in the Cornubian Batholith and their development in Cornwall and Devon, United Kingdom

Geothermal energy could play a pivotal role in decarbonisation as it can provide clean, constant base-load energy which is weather independent. With a growing demand for clean energy and improved energy security, geothermal resources must be quantified to reduce exploration risk. This study aims to quantify the untapped resource-potential of the Cornubian Batholith as a geothermal resource for power generation and direct heat use. Recent field work, laboratory measurements and petrophysical characterization provides a newly compiled dataset which is inclusive of subsurface samples taken from the production well of the United Downs Deep Geothermal Power Project. Deterministic and probabilistic calculations are undertaken to evaluate the: total heat in place, recoverable resource, technical potential and potential carbon savings. The Cornubian Batholith is considered a petrothermal system which may require stimulation as an enhanced geothermal system. This study shows the batholith has significant heat stored of 8988 EJ (P50), corresponding to 366 EJ recoverable and a technical potential of 556 GWth. When evaluating the potential for power generation (i.e., electricity) the P50 is 31 GWe. The total carbon savings when generating electricity (P50) equates to 106 Mt

Does the Meguma Terrane Extend into SW England?

The peri-Gondwanan Meguma terrane of southern Nova Scotia, Canada, is the only major lithotectonic element of the northern Appalachian orogen that has no clear correlatives elsewhere in the Appalachians and lacks firm linkages to the Caledonide and Variscan orogens of western and southern Europe. This characteristic is in contrast with its immediate peri-Gondwanan neighbor, Avalonia, which has features in common with portions of Carolinia in the southern Appalachians and has been traced from the Rhenohercynian Zone of southern Britain eastward around the Bohemian Massif to the Carpathians and western Pontides. At issue is the tendency in Europe to assign all peri-Gondwanan terranes lying outboard of the Rheic suture to Avalonia, characterized by relatively juvenile basement and detrital zircon ages that include Mesoproterozoic populations, and those inboard of the suture to Cadomia, characterized by a more evolved basement and detrital zircon ages that match Paleoproterozoic and older sources in the West African craton.    Although the unexposed basements of Avalonia and Meguma are thought to be isotopically very similar, the Meguma sedimentary cover contains scarce Mesoproterozoic zircon and is dominated instead by Neoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic populations like those of Cadomia. Hence, felsic magma produced by crustal melting in the Meguma terrane (e.g. the ca. 370 Ma South Mountain Batholith) is isotopically more juvenile (eNd = –5 to –1, TDM = 1.3 Ga) than the rocks it intruded (eNd= –12 to –7, TDM = 1.7 Ga). By contrast, felsic magma produced by crustal melting in Avalonia (eNd = –1 to +6, TDM = 0.7–1.2 Ga) is isotopically similar to its host rocks (eNd = –3 to +4, TDM = 0.9–1.4).    The isotopic relationship shown by the Meguma terrane has also been recognized in the South Portuguese Zone of southern Spain, which is traditionally assigned to Avalonia. However, the Sierra Norte Batholith of the South Portuguese Zone (ca. 330 Ma; eNd = +1 to –3, TDM = 0.9–1.2 Ga) is on average more juvenile than the Late Devonian host rocks (eNd = –5 to –11) it intruded, suggesting instead an extension of the Meguma terrane into Europe. Available data for the Cornubian Batholith of SW England (ca. 275–295 Ma; eNd = –4 to –7, TDM = 1.3–1.8 Ga) and the Devonian–Carboniferous metasedimentary rocks it intruded (eNd = –8 to –11) suggests this may also be true of that part of the southern Britain (Rhenohercynian Zone) with which the South Portuguese Zone is traditionally correlated.SOMMAIRELe terrane péri-gondwanien de Meguma en Nouvelle-Écosse au Canada, est le seul grand élément lithotectonique de l’orogène des Appalaches du Nord qui n’ait pas de correspondant avéré ailleurs dans les Appalaches et qui ne montre aucun lien sûr avec les orogènes calédonienne et varisque de l’ouest et du sud de l’Europe.  Cette situation contraste avec celle de son voisin péri-gondwanien immédiat, l’Avalonie, qui partage certaines caractéristiques avec des portions de Carolinia des Appalaches du sud et qui a été suivi à partir de la zone rhénohercynienne dans le sud de la Grande-Bretagne vers l’est autour du massif bohémien jusqu’aux Carpates et l’ouest de la chaîne pontique.  Ce qui est en question ici c’est la tendance en Europe à assigner l’Avalonie à tous les terranes péri-gondwaniens situés à l’extérieur de la suture rhéïque lesquels sont caractérisés par un socle relativement juvénile et des âges de zircons détritiques qui comportent des populations mésoprotérozoïques, et ceux situés à l’intérieur de la suture à Cadomia, lesquels sont caractérisés par un socle plus évolué et des âges de zircons détritiques qui correspondent à des sources du craton ouest africain paléoprotérozoïques et plus anciennes.     Bien que l’on estime que les socles non-exposés des terranes d’Avalonie et de Meguma soient très similaires isotopiquement, le couvert sédimentaire de Meguma ne renferme que de rares zircons mésoprotérozoïques, et ce sont plutôt les populations de zircons néoprotérozoïques et paléoprotérozoïques qui dominent, comme c’est le cas pour Cadomia.  Il en ressort que le magma felsique produit par la fusion de croûte dans le terrane de Meguma (par ex. le batholite de South Mountain de 370 Ma env.) est isotopiquement plus jeune (eNd = –5 à –1, TDM = 1.3 Ga) que les roches qu’il recoupe (eNd= –12 à –7, TDM = 1.7 Ga).  Par opposition, le magma felsique produit par la fusion de la croûte dans le terrane d’Avalonie (eNd = –1 à +6, TDM = 0.7–1.2 Ga) est isotopiquement similaire aux roches de son encaissant (eNd = –3 à +4, TDM = 0.9–1.4).     Le profil isotopique du terrane de Meguma, traditionnellement assignée à l’Avalonie,  a aussi été détecté dans la Zone sud-portugaise du sud de l’Espagne.  Cependant, le batholite de Sierra Norte de la Zone sud-portugaise (ca. 330 Ma; eNd = +1 à –3, TDM = 0.9–1.2 Ga) est en moyenne plus jeune que l’encaissant du Dévonien moyen (eNd = –5 à –11) qu’il recoupe, ce qui permet de penser à une extension du terrane de Meguma en Europe.  Les données disponibles du batholite de Cornubian dans le S-O de l’Angleterre (ca. 275–295 Ma; eNd = –4 à –7, TDM = 1.3–1.8 Ga) et des roches métasédimentaires dévono-carbonifères qu’il recoupe (eNd = –8 to –11) permet de penser qu’il pourrait en être de même de cette portion du sud de la Grande-Bretagne (Zone rhénohercynienne) avec laquelle la Zone sud-portugaise est traditionnellement corrélée

Constraining the provenance of the Stonehenge ‘Altar Stone’:Evidence from automated mineralogy and U–Pb zircon age dating

The Altar Stone at Stonehenge is a greenish sandstone thought to be of Late Silurian-Devonian (‘Old Red Sandstone’) age. It is classed as one of the bluestone lithologies which are considered to be exotic to the Salisbury Plain environ, most of which are derived from the Mynydd Preseli, in west Wales. However, no Old Red Sandstone rocks crop out in the Preseli; instead a source in the Lower Old Red Sandstone Cosheston Subgroup at Mill Bay to the south of the Preseli, has been proposed. More recently, on the basis of detailed petrography, a source for the Altar Stone much further to the east, towards the Wales-England border, has been suggested. Quantitative analyses presented here compare mineralogical data from proposed Stonehenge Altar Stone debris with samples from Milford Haven at Mill Bay, as well as with a second sandstone type found at Stonehenge which is Lower Palaeozoic in age. The Altar Stone samples have contrasting modal mineralogies to the other two sandstone types, especially in relation to the percentages of its calcite, kaolinite and barite cements. Further differences between the Altar Stone sandstone and the Cosheston Subgroup sandstone are seen when their contained zircons are compared, showing differing morphologies and U-Pb age dates having contrasting populations. These data confirm that Mill Bay is not the source of the Altar Stone with the abundance of kaolinite in the Altar Stone sample suggesting a source further east, towards the Wales-England border. The disassociation of the Altar Stone and Milford Haven undermines the hypothesis that the bluestones, including the Altar Stone, were transported from west Wales by sea up the Bristol Channel and adds further credence to a totally land-based route, possibly along a natural routeway leading from west Wales to the Severn estuary and beyond. This route may well have been significant in prehistory, raising the possibility that the Altar Stone was added en route to the assemblage of Preseli bluestones taken to Stonehenge around or shortly before 3000 BC. Recent strontium isotope analysis of human and animal bones from Stonehenge, dating to the beginning of its first construction stage around 3000 BC, are consistent with the suggestion of connectivity between this western region of Britain and Salisbury Plain.This study appears to be the first application of quantitative automated mineralogy in the provenancing of archaeological lithic material and highlights the potential value of automated mineralogy in archaeological provenancing investigations, especially when combined with complementary techniques, in the present case zircon age dating

Bismuth: economic geology and value chains

Bismuth occurs in a wide range of mineral deposit types and is usually regarded as a deleterious by-product. Its classification as a critical raw material by the European Commission in 2017 and a critical mineral by the USA in 2018 has, however, reawakened interest in Bi production and its security of supply. Demand for Bi is increasing, mostly as a substitute for Pb and for use in chemicals. Bismuth is mainly chalcophile in behaviour, although it has some lithophile characteristics. The element is strongly concentrated in felsic crustal lithologies, particularly fractionated granites, where it can substitute for Zr in zircon. It occurs within a diverse range of minerals; the most important hydrothermal minerals are native bismuth and bismuthinite. Bismuth can substitute for Pb in galena and Bi-rich galena is a major Bi ore. Bismuth alloys with gold to form maldonite at temperatures < 373 °C, thereby acting as a Au collector in felsic melts, particularly under reduced conditions. In the weathering environment Bi is generally immobile: it forms Bi oxide or hydroxide ochres or co-precipitates with Fe. Bismuth is found in a range of mineralised systems, sometimes in sufficient quantities to be economically extracted as a by-product. The most common sources of Bi are W-, Pb-, and, occasionally, Au-rich skarns, while five element (Co-Ni-Bi-Ag-As ± U) vein deposits were historically a major source of native Bi. Bismuth also occurs in large magmatic systems such in Sn- and W-rich greisens and associated veins as native bismuth and bismuthinite. Bismuth is present in trace concentrations in porphyry-hosted Mo-W-mineralisation and in some reduced intrusion-related Au, as well as some orogenic Au, deposits. VMS deposits can host minor Bi mineralisation, typically associated with the Au-rich parts of the mineralised system. Bismuth supply is strongly reliant on Asian production; notably the skarns deposits Núi Pháo in Vietnam and Shizhuyuan in China. Alternative supplies of Bi could be unlocked by greater consideration of bismuth by-production at the evaluation stage of polymetallic prospects elsewhere, and if more sustainable recovery techniques are developed for retrieval of Bi from conventional mineral processing circuits. The knowledge base for bismuth can be improved upon through interventions at the exploration, resource and reserve reporting and mineral processing planning stages. This in turn would provide a greater understanding of the deportment of Bi-bearing minerals, impacting on the design of mineral processing flow sheets and reducing waste, and thereby improving the sustainability and environmental footprint of mineral deposits

Integrated Object-Based Image Analysis for semi-automated geological lineament detection in southwest England

Regional lineament detection for mapping of geological structure can provide crucial information for mineral exploration. Manual methods of lineament detection are time consuming, subjective and unreliable. The use of semi-automated methods reduces the subjectivity through applying a standardised method of searching. Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) has become a mainstream technique for landcover classification, however, the use of OBIA methods for lineament detection is still relatively under-utilised. The Southwest England region is covered by high-resolution airborne geophysics and LiDAR data that provide an excellent opportunity to demonstrate the power of OBIA methods for lineament detection. Herein, two complementary but stand-alone OBIA methods for lineament detection are presented which both enable semi-automatic regional lineament mapping. Furthermore, these methods have been developed to integrate multiple datasets to create a composite lineament network. The top-down method uses threshold segmentation and sub-levels to create objects, whereas the bottom-up method segments the whole image before merging objects and refining these through a border assessment. Overall lineament lengths are longest when using the top-down method which also provides detailed metadata on the source dataset of the lineament. The bottom-up method is more objective and computationally efficient and only requires user knowledge to classify lineaments into major and minor groups. Both OBIA methods create a similar network of lineaments indicating that semi-automatic techniques are robust and consistent. The integration of multiple datasets from different types of spatial data to create a comprehensive, composite lineament network is an important development and demonstrates the suitability of OBIA methods for enhancing lineament detection

Integrated mineralogical analysis (QEMSCAN and DRX) of transgressive black shales: Tithonian basal deposits of the Vaca Muerta Formation (Neuquén Basin, Argentina)

Se estudia la composición por difracción de rayos X y QEMSCAN (19 muestras)de fangolitas y margas de la Formación Vaca Muerta, acumuladas durante latransgresión tithoniana de la Cuenca Neuquina. Se definen importantes variaciones composicionales entre tipos litológicos y facies sedimentarias. Las rocas del sector marginal de la cuenca muestran fuerte influencia de los aportes terrígenos (cuarzo, feldespatos, illita e illita/esmectita). En las sedimentitas del sector depocentral facies de pelitas grises oscuras) son importantes los indicadores de productividad orgánica (carbonatos y cuarzo biogénico), de condiciones anóxicas (pirita, siderita) y de un lento ritmo de acumulación sedimentaria. Los depósitos depocentrales de la transgresión tithoniana corresponden a la cocina de hidrocarburos de la Formación Vaca Muerta. Sus amplias variaciones mineralógicas ejercen fuerte impacto en la conversión de materia orgánica y en la liberación de gas y petróleo, así como en las propiedades petrofísicas y la fragilidad de rocas que constituyen la fuente principal para la explotación no convencional de hidrocarburos en la Cuenca Neuquina.Recent studies have demonstrated that the mineralogical composition of shales plays an important role in unconventional hydrocarbon production (Chen et al., 2014). Mineralogy may influence the nature of the pore structure, the fracktability of these fine-grained deposits and pyrolysis reactions, all of them essential in the stimulation and extraction processes of low-permeability reservoirs (Karabakan and Yürüm, 2000; Jarvie et al., 2007; Ross and Bustin, 2009). This contribution describes and analyzes the mineralogical composition of the Tithonian basal deposits of the Vaca Muerta Formation, which resulted from two independent methodologies, QEMSCAN and DRX. The datasets comprises 19 samples distributed from the austral to the central sectors of the Neuquén Basin (Fig. 1a). The sampled sediments were deposited during the marine transgression of the early Tithonian (Fig. 1b) and accumulated under bottom conditions that favored the preservation of organic matter. The studied interval is the most important source rock of the basin. Previous geochemical studies (Spalletti et al., 2014) showed that the basal interval comprises fine-grained sediments with a very variable composition (Fig. 3), ranging from pure siliciclastic to mixed (carbonate/ siliciclastic) mudstones. Despite this compositional variability, macroscopically in the field only three main facies were recognized: greenish mudstones, yellowish mudstones and dark grey mudstones. The first two facies are commonly distributed in the marginal areas of the basin, whereas the latter is more characteristic of basinal regions (Fig. 2, Table 1). The samples were analyzed with conventional optical methods and by X-ray diffractometry (whole rock and <2 μm fraction), as well as by a combination of SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) and EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectrometry). This technique is known as QEMSCAN, which stands for Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by SCANning electron microscopy. The integration of analytical methods revealed significant compositional variations between different lithologic types and lithofacies (Figs. 4-6, Table 2). Hybrid mudstones (especially marls and calcareous marls) show high calcite contents, whereas more siliciclastic deposits are dominated by quartz and feldspar, with clay minerals as illite and interstratified I/S dominant in the mudstones, together with minor contents of kaolinite and analcime. The mineralogical composition of identified lithofacies also shows changes, even among samples of the same lithofacies (Fig. 6). Greenish mudstones are characterized by illite, smectite and quartz, with subordinated contribution of kaolinite and interstratified I/S. For yellowish mudstones there are no clear trends, with a wide spectrum of quartz/calcite relationships (Fig. 6) and variable content of Illite, interstratified I/S and analcime. In turn, dark grey mudstones, which are typical of the depocentral sectors, have minerals which are indicative of low oxygenation (pyrite, siderite), but a broad compositional range in terms of calcite, quartz and clay minerals. This study has allowed establishing a significant equivalence between the information presented here (QEMSCAN and DRX), and the one gathered by means of inorganic geochemical analysis (Spalletti et al., 2014). The mineralogical composition of the sediments located toward marginal settings during the Tithonian transgression reflects a strong influence of terrigenous supply from hinterland (Fig. 7). In contrast, the sediments that accumulated in more basinal locations of the marine setting were heavily influenced by biogenic productivity (intrabasinal concentration of carbonate- and silicarich biota), anoxic conditions, and more likely, lower sedimentation rates (Fig. 7). These basinal, basal deposits (dark grey facies) of the Vaca Muerta Formation correspond to the highest total organic concentration across the basin (kitchen) and this interval was responsible for the expulsion of large quantities of hydrocarbons during different geological times (Villar et al., 1993, 2006). The mudstone mineralogy exerts a strong control in several processes such as organic matter conversion (pyrolysis-related reactions), expulsion of hydrocarbons, petrophysical properties and geomechanical attributes, that in turn influences the reservoir properties and extraction processes (cf. Patterson and Henstridge, 1990; Patterson et al., 1990). Therefore, the wide range of compositional variability that is inherent in the dark grey mudstones of the Vaca Muerta Formation (so-called "black shales") is key in order to maximize its exploration and exploitation as an unconventional resource.Centro de Investigaciones GeológicasConsejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnica

Integrated mineralogical analysis (QEMSCAN and DRX) of transgressive black shales: Tithonian basal deposits of the Vaca Muerta Formation (Neuquén Basin, Argentina)

Se estudia la composición por difracción de rayos X y QEMSCAN (19 muestras)de fangolitas y margas de la Formación Vaca Muerta, acumuladas durante latransgresión tithoniana de la Cuenca Neuquina. Se definen importantes variaciones composicionales entre tipos litológicos y facies sedimentarias. Las rocas del sector marginal de la cuenca muestran fuerte influencia de los aportes terrígenos (cuarzo, feldespatos, illita e illita/esmectita). En las sedimentitas del sector depocentral facies de pelitas grises oscuras) son importantes los indicadores de productividad orgánica (carbonatos y cuarzo biogénico), de condiciones anóxicas (pirita, siderita) y de un lento ritmo de acumulación sedimentaria. Los depósitos depocentrales de la transgresión tithoniana corresponden a la cocina de hidrocarburos de la Formación Vaca Muerta. Sus amplias variaciones mineralógicas ejercen fuerte impacto en la conversión de materia orgánica y en la liberación de gas y petróleo, así como en las propiedades petrofísicas y la fragilidad de rocas que constituyen la fuente principal para la explotación no convencional de hidrocarburos en la Cuenca Neuquina.Recent studies have demonstrated that the mineralogical composition of shales plays an important role in unconventional hydrocarbon production (Chen et al., 2014). Mineralogy may influence the nature of the pore structure, the fracktability of these fine-grained deposits and pyrolysis reactions, all of them essential in the stimulation and extraction processes of low-permeability reservoirs (Karabakan and Yürüm, 2000; Jarvie et al., 2007; Ross and Bustin, 2009). This contribution describes and analyzes the mineralogical composition of the Tithonian basal deposits of the Vaca Muerta Formation, which resulted from two independent methodologies, QEMSCAN and DRX. The datasets comprises 19 samples distributed from the austral to the central sectors of the Neuquén Basin (Fig. 1a). The sampled sediments were deposited during the marine transgression of the early Tithonian (Fig. 1b) and accumulated under bottom conditions that favored the preservation of organic matter. The studied interval is the most important source rock of the basin. Previous geochemical studies (Spalletti et al., 2014) showed that the basal interval comprises fine-grained sediments with a very variable composition (Fig. 3), ranging from pure siliciclastic to mixed (carbonate/ siliciclastic) mudstones. Despite this compositional variability, macroscopically in the field only three main facies were recognized: greenish mudstones, yellowish mudstones and dark grey mudstones. The first two facies are commonly distributed in the marginal areas of the basin, whereas the latter is more characteristic of basinal regions (Fig. 2, Table 1). The samples were analyzed with conventional optical methods and by X-ray diffractometry (whole rock and <2 μm fraction), as well as by a combination of SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) and EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectrometry). This technique is known as QEMSCAN, which stands for Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by SCANning electron microscopy. The integration of analytical methods revealed significant compositional variations between different lithologic types and lithofacies (Figs. 4-6, Table 2). Hybrid mudstones (especially marls and calcareous marls) show high calcite contents, whereas more siliciclastic deposits are dominated by quartz and feldspar, with clay minerals as illite and interstratified I/S dominant in the mudstones, together with minor contents of kaolinite and analcime. The mineralogical composition of identified lithofacies also shows changes, even among samples of the same lithofacies (Fig. 6). Greenish mudstones are characterized by illite, smectite and quartz, with subordinated contribution of kaolinite and interstratified I/S. For yellowish mudstones there are no clear trends, with a wide spectrum of quartz/calcite relationships (Fig. 6) and variable content of Illite, interstratified I/S and analcime. In turn, dark grey mudstones, which are typical of the depocentral sectors, have minerals which are indicative of low oxygenation (pyrite, siderite), but a broad compositional range in terms of calcite, quartz and clay minerals. This study has allowed establishing a significant equivalence between the information presented here (QEMSCAN and DRX), and the one gathered by means of inorganic geochemical analysis (Spalletti et al., 2014). The mineralogical composition of the sediments located toward marginal settings during the Tithonian transgression reflects a strong influence of terrigenous supply from hinterland (Fig. 7). In contrast, the sediments that accumulated in more basinal locations of the marine setting were heavily influenced by biogenic productivity (intrabasinal concentration of carbonate- and silicarich biota), anoxic conditions, and more likely, lower sedimentation rates (Fig. 7). These basinal, basal deposits (dark grey facies) of the Vaca Muerta Formation correspond to the highest total organic concentration across the basin (kitchen) and this interval was responsible for the expulsion of large quantities of hydrocarbons during different geological times (Villar et al., 1993, 2006). The mudstone mineralogy exerts a strong control in several processes such as organic matter conversion (pyrolysis-related reactions), expulsion of hydrocarbons, petrophysical properties and geomechanical attributes, that in turn influences the reservoir properties and extraction processes (cf. Patterson and Henstridge, 1990; Patterson et al., 1990). Therefore, the wide range of compositional variability that is inherent in the dark grey mudstones of the Vaca Muerta Formation (so-called "black shales") is key in order to maximize its exploration and exploitation as an unconventional resource.Centro de Investigaciones GeológicasConsejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnica

Magmatic, Metamorphic and Structural History of the Variscan Lizard Ophiolite and Metamorphic Sole, Cornwall, UK

The Lizard ophiolite, Cornwall, South-West England, is the largest and best-preserved ophiolite within the Variscan orogenic belt. It forms part of the Rheic-Rhenohercynian suture zone, and was obducted northwestward onto the passive continental margin of Avalonia (Laurussia) during the Middle Devonian. It comprises an almost complete thrust slice of oceanic crust with sheeted dykes, gabbros, Moho transition sequence, and upper-mantle peridotites, underlain by a metamorphic sole. Despite the importance of the Lizard ophiolite in understanding Variscan tectonics, the origin and age of the Lizard ophiolite are debated. We present new field observations, structural maps and cross-sections of the Lizard ophiolite from extensive re-mapping, integrated with U–Pb geochronology, petrology, thermobarometry, and whole rock geochemistry. We report new U–Pb zircon (CA-ID-TIMS and LA-ICPMS) ages of 386.80 ± 0.25/0.31/0.52 Ma (Givetian) from a plagiogranite dyke intruding the Crousa Gabbros at Porthoustock, and 395.08 ± 0.14/0.22/0.47 Ma (Emsian) from partial melts of the metamorphic sole Landewednack Amphibolites at Mullion Cove. These ages, respectively, precisely date the formation of the Lizard ophiolite oceanic crust, and the age of cooling post peak-metamorphism of the sole. Petrological modeling on the Landewednack Amphibolites suggests peak metamorphic conditions of 10 ± 2 kbar and 600 ± 75°C. We demonstrate that the Lizard ophiolite formed as a supra-subduction zone ophiolite overlying an inverted metamorphic sole, and we combine our observations and data into a new geodynamic model for the formation and obduction of the ophiolite. The current data supports an induced subduction initiation model