Polyurethane foam from oil palm fruit waste: synthesis and characterization of biopolyol and foam properties

Oil palm industries generate abundant amount of biomass, which when properly used will not only be able to solve the disposal problem but also can create value added products. The aim of this research is to produce of polyurethane (PU) foams with biopolyols from liquefied oil palm fruit waste (PW). Three parts of oil palm fruit waste (PW): oil palm mesocarp fiber (PM), oil palm shell (PS) and oil palm kernel (PK) was liquefied using liquefaction solvent with sulfuric acid as catalyst was studied. PU foams were prepared from 100 % of PM biopolyol (PMF), incorporation of liquefied PM biopolyol with renewable monomer (PMRF), epoxy (PMEF) and PM fiber filler (PMF1-9) in the presence of dibutyltine dilaurate as a catalyst with water as blowing agent, and silicon oil as a surfactant. The liquefied product and polyurethane foam samples were characterized through the physical, chemical, thermal, mechanical and morphological analysis. The optimal liquefaction conditions were determined to be PW/PEG400 = 1/3, 5 % acid loading, and liquefaction at 150 °C for 120 min. The results revealed that more than 50 % of the oil palm fruit waste converted into liquefied product. The GC-MS analysis showed that the chemical components of phenol and its derivatives, organic acids, hydrocarbon, ester, benzene groups and alcohols. FTIR spectroscopy analysis demonstrated the formation of urethane linkage in liquefied PW biopolyol which suitable for the production of PU foams. Meanwhile, In terms of the thermal properties, the improved thermal insulation properties were achieved at a composition of PMF foams. PMF foams showed higher compression strength (61.41 kPa) and tensile strength (117 kPa). In DMA result, the higher crosslinking density (33.17 M/m3) and crosslinking interaction (NHC(O)O) in PU foam was determined. SEM revealed the exfoliated structure of PU foams and indicated the cells within the obtained foams are closed cells. The properties of the PU foam were indicating that the liquefied PM biopolyol from a solvolysis liquefaction could be successfully applied to fabricate PU foam products as a substitute for industrial foams with lower cost

Preparation and characterization of biopolyol from liquefied oil palm fruit waste: part 2

Oil palm fruit waste (OPFW) was conducted using polyhydric alcohol (PA) as liquefaction solvent with H2SO4 in three different OPFW/PA ratio (1/2, 1/3 and 1/4). During the liquefaction, cellulose, semi-cellulose and lignin are decomposed, which results in changes of acid value and hydroxyl value. The liquefied OPFW were characterized by Fourier Transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The hydroxyl and acid values of the liquefied oil palm fruit waste (OPFW) varied with the liquefied conditions. It was observed that with an increase in the liquefaction solvent (PA) amount in the mixture resulted in a high acid value and hydroxyl value for the OPFW. FT-IR spectroscopy analysis showed that the resulting biopolyol was suitable monomer for polyurethane (PU) synthesis for the production of PU foams

Biosorption of Cd(II) ion from aqueous solution by using orange peel (citrus sinensis) biomass : Optimization study / Shaharuddin Kormin

The elimination of metal ions from aqueous solutions by biosorption plays an important role in water pollution control. Toxic heavy metal contimination of industrial wastewater is an important enviromental problem. Biosorption can be used as a cost effective and efficient technique for the removal of toxic heavy metals from wastewater. This study investigated the uptake capacity of Cd (II) ions by processed orange peels, a pectin-rich byproduct of the fruit waste industry. Orange peels were identified as the most promising biosorbent due to high metal uptake in conjunction with physical stability. Therefore, the study on the potential of Citrus sinensis as biosorbent for removal of Cd (II) ions from aqueous solution was done on pH, contact time and biosorbent dose, from this study, The Cadmium adsorption was strictly pH dependent, and maximum uptakes of cadmium on biosorbents were observed at pH 6 with the highest percentage removal of 95% and uptake capacity of 0.475 mg/g. The result also showed that optimum contact time was determined at 210 minutes biosorption process with percentage removal of 95% with uptake capacity 0.475mg/g. In addition, it was found that 3.0g was the optimum biosorbent dose, which give highest percentage removal of 93% with uptake capacity 0.155mg/g. Due to their low cost, good uptake capacity, and stability, orange peels are a promising biosorbent material warranting further study

Liquefaction of oil palm fruit waste and its application for the development of polyurethane foams

This research utilizes solvolysis liquefaction of oil palm fruit waste (PW) biomass for production of polyurethane (PU) foam. Three part of PW: oil palm mesocarp fibre (PM), oil palm shell (PS) and oil palm kernel (PK) was treated using liquefaction solvent with sulfuric acid. Effects of different liquefaction condition such as effect of raw material/liquefaction solvent ratio, reaction time, liquefaction temperature, catalyst amount and liquefaction solvent on liquefaction yield have been determined. Analytical methods used were SEM and DSC analysis. Result showed that more than 70% of the PW were converted into biopolyols within optimum reaction condition of 120 minutes at 150°C with raw material/liquefaction solvent ratio of 1/3 using PEG400. In liquefaction process, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin are degraded which results in changes of acid and hydroxyl value. Biopolyols of PM/PEG400 ratios was yielded highest biopolyol which is used to continue the experiment. Foaming kinetic indicate a slight increase from initial mix time to gelling time. Moisture content and water absorption are strongly affected the mechanical properties of PU foam. There is no Tg observed in PMF in DSC analysis. Oil palm fruit waste showed great potential for PU foams fabrication

Physical and tensile properties of treated/untreated kenaf fiber and pineapple leaf fiber

This paper investigates the effect of alkali treatment on tensile properties of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) fiber and pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) for the development of yarn. Basically, to prepare the biocomposite, this project utilized short kenaf fiber as the main material. The fiber was treated with 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% of different sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration. The size and morphology of the obtained fibers were characterized by environmental image analyzer, and the studies showed that the treated and untreated fiber had diameter between 70-100 µm. From this study, it has been found that the tensile properties of the treated fibers for both kenaf and PALF have improved significantly as compared to untreated fibers especially at the optimum level of 6% NaOH. It is also interesting to highlight that, 6% NaOH yields the optimum concentration of NaOH for the chemical treatment

Development and characterization of biodegradable blends of low density polyethylene (LDPE) incorperated with thermoplastic sago starch

Starch-based polymeric materials offer a renewable, economical alternative to existing petroleum based, non-renewable or costly polymeric materials.The aim of this study is to develop degradable starch-low density polyethylene(LDPE)blend with enhanced mechanical properties.This research studies the effect of different filler loading,effect of compatibilizer and different kind of plasticizer.The compounding of the LDPE with sago starch was prepared via a twin screw extruder followed by injection molding.Studies on their physical,mechanical properties and thermal properties of each formulation were carried out by density, melt flow index (MFI),tensile,flexural,impact, thermogravimetry analyzer(TGA-DTA)and differential scanning calorimetry(DSC).The presence of high starch contents had an adverse effect on the mechanical properties of LDPE/starch blends.However,the addition of compatibilizer or plasticizer improved the interfacial adhesion between the two materials, hence,improved the tensile properties of the blends. Meanwhile,study of degradation of sago starch filled-LDPE (LDPE/SS)blend was carried by hydrolysis,fungi exposure, natural weathering and soil burial exposure analysis.The biodegradability of sago starch–filled LDPE blend was studied by monitoring its weight loss.Incorporating sago starch with LDPE improved the weight loss.Tensile tests, TGA and SEM imaging were also carried out on the samples before and after degradation.Imaging showed that the increase in starch content from 5% to 20% in the formulations increases the biodegradability of the samples.The scanning electron micrographs(SEM)support the findings of biodegradation properties of LDPE/SS blend, compatibilized LDPE/SS and plasticized LDPE/SS blend.In order to increase the compatibility between LDPE and starch,malaeic anhydride was used to graft onto the LDPE molecules(compatibilized LDPE/SS).After using the proper composition and processing condition,mechanical properties of compatibilized LDPE/SS blend were found significantly higher than those of the LDPE/SS blend with the same starch contents. The second part of the study investigated the effects of different types of plasticizer(sucrose,urea,glycerol and sorbitol)and its content on the structure and properties of the LDPE/SS blend.Mechanical properties of plasticized LDPE/SS were found higher than unplasticized LDPE/SS blend

Physical and mechanical properties of LDPE incorporated with different starch sources

In this study it was investigated the incorporation of different starches, such as sago starch, corn starch, potato starch, tapioca starch and wheat starch, in low-density polyethylene matrix (LDPE) to enhanced mechanical properties and to obtain partially biodegradable product with the aim to reduce the plastics wastes in the environment. For comparison, virgin LDPE, LDPE with different sources of starch blends were prepared and characterized under the same conditions. The starches were mixed to the LDPE using a twin screw extruder to guarantee the homogeneity of the formulations. The compound were shaping processed by injection moulding. The characterization of those compounds was done by physical (density, MFI), mechanical (Universal tensile machine). The addition of starch to LDPE reduced the MFI values, the tensile strength, elongation at break and impact strength, whereas the elastic modulus, flexural modulus and flexural strength increased. LDPE/SS show the good mechanical behavior compared to other formulation. The physical and mechanical properties were evident when 5 and 30 wt% were added. Water uptake increased with increased starch content and immersion time. The time taken for the composites to equilibrate was about one month even when they were immersed completely in water

Environmentally Degradable Sago Starch Filled Low-density Polyethylene

Degradable native low density polyethylene (LDPE) and modified LDPE films containing 5–30 wt% of sago starch, and LDPE with prodegradant additives in the form of a master batch (MB) in the amounts of 30% starch were prepared by twin screw extrusion followed by injection molding. Studies on their mechanical properties such as tensile strength and elongation at break and biodegradation were carried out by tensile test and exposure to hydrolysis, fungi environment as well as by natural weathering and burial in soil. The presence of high starch contents had an adverse effect on the tensile properties of the blend films. High starch content was also found to increase the rate of biodegradability of the films. The characteristic parameters of the environment were measured during the period of degradation and their influence on degradation of LDPE was discussed. Changes in weight, morphology, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and tensile properties of polymer samples were tested during the experiment performed

The effect of alkaline treatment on tensile strength and morphological properties of kenaf fibres for yarn production

This paper investigates the effect of alkali treatment and mechanical properties of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus)fibre for the development of yarn. Two different fibre sources are used for the yarn production. Kenaf fibres were treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in the concentration of 3, 6, 9, and 12% prior to fibre opening process and tested for their tensile strength and Young’s modulus. Then, the selected fibres were introduced to fibre opener at three different opening processing parameters; namely, speed of roller feeder, small drum, and big drum. The diameter size, surface morphology, and fibre durability towards machine of the fibres were characterized. The results show that concentrations of NaOH used have greater effects on fibre mechanical properties. From this study, the tensile and modulus properties of the treated fibres for both types have improved significantly as compared to untreated fibres, especially at the optimum level of 6% NaOH. It is also interesting to highlight that 6% NaOH is the optimum concentration for the alkaline treatment. The untreated and treated fibres at 6% NaOH were then introduced to fibre opener, and it was found that the treated fibre produced higher fibre diameter with better surface morphology compared to the untreated fibre. Higher speed parameter during opening was found to produce higher yield of opened-kenaf fibres

Effects of Different Starch Types on the Physico-Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Low Density Polyethylene Composites

The aim of this research is to investigate the effects of different thermoplastic starches and starch contents on the physico-mechanical and morphological properties of new polymeric-based composites from low density polyethylene (LDPE) and thermoplastic starches. Different compositions of thermoplastic starches (5–40 wt%) and LDPE were melt blended by extrusion and injection molding. The resultant materials were characterized with respect to the following parameters, i.e., melt flow index (MFI), mechanical properties (tensile, flexural, stiffness and impact strength) and water absorption. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was also used in this study for evaluating blend miscibility. MFI values of all blends decreased as the starch content increased, while the sago starch formulation showed a higher MFI value than others. The incorporation of fillers into LDPE matrix resulted in an increased in tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus and slightly decreased tensile strength and impact strength. However, sago starch filled composites exhibited better mechanical properties as compared to other starches. The SEM results revealed that the miscibility of such blends is dependent on the type of starch used. The water absorption increased with immersion time and the thermoplastic sago starch samples showed the lowest percentage of water absorption compared with other thermoplastic starches