A Microchip CD4 Counting Method for HIV Monitoring in Resource-Poor Settings

BACKGROUND: More than 35 million people in developing countries are living with HIV infection. An enormous global effort is now underway to bring antiretroviral treatment to at least 3 million of those infected. While drug prices have dropped considerably, the cost and technical complexity of laboratory tests essential for the management of HIV disease, such as CD4 cell counts, remain prohibitive. New, simple, and affordable methods for measuring CD4 cells that can be implemented in resource-scarce settings are urgently needed. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Here we describe the development of a prototype for a simple, rapid, and affordable method for counting CD4 lymphocytes. Microliter volumes of blood without further sample preparation are stained with fluorescent antibodies, captured on a membrane within a miniaturized flow cell and imaged through microscope optics with the type of charge-coupled device developed for digital camera technology. An associated computer algorithm converts the raw digital image into absolute CD4 counts and CD4 percentages in real time. The accuracy of this prototype system was validated through testing in the United States and Botswana, and showed close agreement with standard flow cytometry (r = 0.95) over a range of absolute CD4 counts, and the ability to discriminate clinically relevant CD4 count thresholds with high sensitivity and specificity. CONCLUSION: Advances in the adaptation of new technologies to biomedical detection systems, such as the one described here, promise to make complex diagnostics for HIV and other infectious diseases a practical global reality

The determination and characterisation of beta lactam resistance in clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannII

Bibliography leaves 122-136

Components of the ETC System

<p>A fluid delivery system is used to introduce sample containing fluorescently stained lymphocytes in whole blood and wash buffer to a capture flow cell. Lymphocytes captured within the flow cell are visualized with a fluorescence imaging station using a mercury pressure lamp as a light source, and a CCD for image collection. Raw data images are then processed and analyzed using an automated algorithm run by an attached computer. The flow cell includes a polymer membrane supported on a chip and two transparent polymethylmethacrylate inserts that allow for the optical evaluation of captured lymphocytes.</p

CD4 Lymphocyte Dose Response

<p>Purified CD4 cells were labeled with AlexaFluor-488-conjugated anti-CD4 antibodies, introduced to the flow cell in amounts ranging from zero to 200,000 cells and imaged. There is a linear correlation between the number of cells in the sample and the intensity of light emitted from the membrane filter (<i>R</i>² = 0.999).</p

Representative Processed Data Images from Three Participants in Botswana

<p>The participants included (A) a 31-y-old woman with a CD4 count of 83 cells/μl by flow cytometry; (B) a 33-y-old woman with a CD4 count of 271 cells/μl by flow cytometry; and (C) a 5-mo-old infant with an absolute CD4 count of 2,098 cells/μl and a CD4:CD8 ratio of 1.80 by flow cytometry. In these images, CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells appear red, monocytes appear green, and CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells appear yellow. Each image reflects 0.18 μl of whole blood.</p

Methods Comparison and Correlation Studies for CD4 Percentages of Total T Cells and CD4:CD8 Ratios in 67 Human Subjects

<p>(A and B) CD4 percentages of total T cells and (C and D) CD4:CD8 ratios in 67 human participants, including 61 adults and six children. In Passing–Bablok correlation plots (A and C), solid black lines indicate identity, blue lines indicate the observed correlations, and dashed black lines indicate 95% confidence limits. Correlations for CD4 percentages of total T cells (<i>r</i> = 0.98, <i>p</i> < 0.0001) and CD4:CD8 ratios (<i>r</i> = 0.98, <i>p</i> < 0.0001) are shown. For Bland–Altman methods comparison plots (B and D), notations are as described in <a href="http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020182#pmed-0020182-g006" target="_blank">Figure 6</a> caption.</p

The Membrane Flow Cell Selectively Captures Lymphocytes and Provides for the Removal of Red Blood Cells without Sample Processing

<div><p>(A) A whole blood sample collected atop a glass slide and imaged by a scanning electron microscope reveals the overabundance of red blood cells in the sample.</p> <p>(B) A whole blood sample processed through the flow cell reveals that lymphocytes are captured on the membrane support while red blood cells are largely excluded from within the cell. Arrows indicate red blood cells passing through the membrane.</p> <p>(C) Fluorescent antibody stain specific for a lymphocyte marker is used to visualize captured lymphocytes within the flow cell in a representative single-color data image.</p></div

Data Collection and Processing for Digital Images Obtained from a Single Diluted Whole Blood Specimen from an HIV-Infected Participant

<div><p>A total of 16.5 μl of whole blood stained with antibodies specific for CD4 and CD3 markers is delivered to the flow cell after 8 min, and an image of the same region of the membrane is obtained with two different emission filters.</p> <p>(A) AlexaFluor-488-conjugated anti-CD4 antibody stains CD4⁺ cells (T lymphocytes and monocytes) green.</p> <p>(B) AlexaFluor-647-conjugated anti-CD3 antibody stains CD3⁺ T lymphocytes red.</p> <p>(C) By digitally merging the two images, CD3⁺CD4⁺ T lymphocytes (i.e., “CD4 cells”) appear yellow and are distinguished from CD4⁺CD3⁻ monocytes (green) and CD3⁺CD4⁻ T lymphocytes (red).</p> <p>(D) A lymphocyte selection algorithm is applied to the merged image, based on a lymphocyte profile as defined by size, shape, and uniformity. Objects not fitting the lymphocyte profile are deleted while remaining objects are selected and ultimately counted. A similar protocol to count CD8 cells is used in each participant.</p> <p>Boxed region indicates two CD4⁺ cells (yellow in [C]) in the original (A and B), merged (C), and processed (D) images. Large green and red objects seen in some images represent aggregates of fluorescent antibody.</p></div