Oocyst wall formation and composition in coccidian parasites

The oocyst wall of coccidian parasites is a robust structure that is resistant to a variety of environmental and chemical insults. This resilience allows oocysts to survive for long periods, facilitating transmission from host to host. The wall is bilayered and is formed by the sequential release of the contents of two specialized organelles - wall forming body 1 and wall forming body 2 - found in the macrogametocyte stage of Coccidia. The oocyst wall is over 90% protein but few of these proteins have been studied. One group is cysteine-rich and may be presumed to crosslink via disulphide bridges, though this is yet to be investigated. Another group of wall proteins is rich in tyrosine. These proteins, which range in size from 8-31 kDa, are derived from larger precursors of 56 and 82 kDa found in the wall forming bodies. Proteases may catalyze processing of the precursors into tyrosine-rich peptides, which are then oxidatively crosslinked in a reaction catalyzed by peroxidases. In support of this hypothesis, the oocyst wall has high levels of dityrosine bonds. These dityrosine crosslinked proteins may provide a structural matrix for assembly of the oocyst wall and contribute to its resilience

Global protein expression analysis in apicomplexan parasites: current status

Members of the phylum Apicomplexa are important protozoan parasites that cause some of the most serious, and in some cases, deadly diseases in humans and animals. They include species from the genus Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Eimeria, Neospora, Cryptosporidium, Babesia and Theileria. The medical, veterinary and economic impact of these pathogens on a global scale is enormous. Although chemo- and immuno-prophylactic strategies are available to control some of these parasites, they are inadequate. Currently, there is an urgent need to design new vaccines or chemotherapeutics for apicomplexan diseases. High-throughput global protein expression analyses using gel or non-gel based protein separation technologies coupled with mass spectrometry and bioinformatics provide a means to identify new drug and vaccine targets in these pathogens. Protein identification based proteomic projects in apicomplexan parasites is currently underway, with the most significant progress made in the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. More recently, preliminary two-dimensional gel electrophoresis maps of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum tachyzoites and Eimeria tenella sporozoites, have been produced, as well as for micronemes in E. tenella. In this review, the status of proteomics in the analysis of global protein expression in apicomplexan parasites will be compared and the challenges associated with these investigations discussed

The coccidian oocyst : a tough nut to crack!

Coccidian parasites are transmitted between hosts by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with oocysts, followed by the release of infectious sporozoites and invasion of the gastro-intestinal tract. In the external environment, sporozoites are protected from desiccation and chemical disinfection by the oocyst wall. This unique structure guarantees successful disease transmission and is as vital to the coccidian parasite as the exoskeleton is to insects - without it they would die. Here, we revisit the early work and combine it with newer molecular data to describe our present understanding of the coccidian oocyst wall

The development of the macrogamete and oocyst wall in Eimeria maxima : immuno-light and electron microscopy

We have identified, and followed the development of three macrogamete organelles involved in the formation of the oocyst wall of Eimeria maxima. The first were small lucent vacuoles that cross-reacted with antibodies to the apple domains of the Toxoplasma gondii microneme protein 4. They appeared early in development and were secreted during macrogamete maturation to form an outer veil and were termed veil forming bodies. The second were the wall forming bodies type 1, large, electron dense vacuoles that stained positively only with antibodies raised to an enriched preparation of the native forms of 56 (gam56), 82 (gam82) and 230 kDa (gam230) gametocyte antigens (termed anti-APGA). The third were the wall forming bodies type 2, which appeared before the wall forming bodies type 1 but remain enclosed within the rough endoplasmic reticulum and stained positively with antibodies raised to recombinant versions of gam56 (anti-gam56), gam82 (anti-gam82) and gam230 (anti-gam230) plus anti-APGA. At the initiation of oocyst wall formation, the anti-T. gondii microneme protein 4 positive outer veil detached from the surface. The outer layer of the oocyst wall was formed by the release of the contents of wall forming bodies type 1 at the surface to form an electron dense, anti-APGA positive layer. The wall forming bodies type 2 appeared, subsequently, to give rise to the electron lucent inner layer. Thus, oocyst wall formation in E. maxima represents a sequential release of the contents of the veil forming bodies, wall forming bodies types 1 and 2 and this may be controlled at the level of the rough endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi body

Functional genomics of gam56 : characterisation of the role of a 56 kilodalton sexual stage antigen in oocyst wall formation in Eimeria maxima

Gam56 (Mr 56,000) is an antigen found in the sexual (macrogametocyte) stage of the intestinal parasite Eimeria maxima that is implicated in protective immunity. The gene (gam56) encoding this protein was cloned and sequenced. It is a single-copy, intronless gene, that localises to a 1,754 bp transcript, and is first detected at 120 h p.i. The gene predicts two distinct protein domains; a tyrosine-serine rich region, composed of amino acids implicated in oocyst wall formation in Eimeria spp., and a proline-methionine rich region often detected in extensins, protein components of plant cell walls. The tyrosine-serine rich region predicts a secondary structure commonly seen in the structural protein fibroin, a component of the cocoon of the caterpillar Bombyx mori. The inference that gam56 is a structural component of the oocyst wall was confirmed when a specific antibody to gam56 recognised the wall forming bodies in macrogametocytes, and the walls of oocysts and sporocysts. Together, these data identify a developmentally regulated, sexual stage gene in E. maxima that shares primary and secondary structure features in common with intrinsic structural proteins in other parasites such as Schistosoma mansoni and Fasciola hepatica, and other organisms across different phyla, including the caterpillar Bombyx mori. In addition, these findings provide evidence for the molecular mechanisms underlying oocyst wall formation in Eimeria and the role of gametocyte antigens in this process

Roles of Tyrosine-Rich Precursor Glycoproteins and Dityrosine- and 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine-Mediated Protein Cross-Linking in Development of the Oocyst Wall in the Coccidian Parasite Eimeria maxima

The oocyst wall of apicomplexan parasites protects them from the harsh external environment, preserving their survival prior to transmission to the next host. If oocyst wall formation could be disrupted, then logically, the cycle of disease transmission could be stopped, and strategies to control infection by several organisms of medical and veterinary importance such as Eimeria, Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cyclospora, and Neospora could be developed. Here, we show that two tyrosine-rich precursor glycoproteins, gam56 and gam82, found in specialized organelles (wall-forming bodies) in the sexual stage (macrogamete) of Eimeria maxima are proteolytically processed into smaller glycoproteins, which are then incorporated into the developing oocyst wall. The identification of high concentrations of dityrosine and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) in oocyst extracts by high-pressure liquid chromatography, together with the detection of a UV autofluorescence in intact oocysts, implicates dityrosine- and possibly DOPA-protein cross-links in oocyst wall hardening. In addition, the identification of peroxidase activity in the wall-forming bodies of macrogametes supports the hypothesis that dityrosine- and DOPA-mediated cross-linking might be an enzyme-catalyzed event. As such, the mechanism of oocyst wall formation in Eimeria, is analogous to the underlying mechanisms involved in the stabilization of extracellular matrices in a number of organisms, widely distributed in nature, including insect resilin, nematode cuticles, yeast cell walls, mussel byssal threads, and sea urchin fertilization membranes

Oocyst wall formation and composition in coccidian parasites

The oocyst wall of coccidian parasites is a robust structure that is resistant to a variety of environmental and chemical insults. This resilience allows oocysts to survive for long periods, facilitating transmission from host to host. The wall is bilayered and is formed by the sequential release of the contents of two specialized organelles - wall forming body 1 and wall forming body 2 - found in the macrogametocyte stage of Coccidia. The oocyst wall is over 90% protein but few of these proteins have been studied. One group is cysteine-rich and may be presumed to crosslink via disulphide bridges, though this is yet to be investigated. Another group of wall proteins is rich in tyrosine. These proteins, which range in size from 8-31 kDa, are derived from larger precursors of 56 and 82 kDa found in the wall forming bodies. Proteases may catalyze processing of the precursors into tyrosine-rich peptides, which are then oxidatively crosslinked in a reaction catalyzed by peroxidases. In support of this hypothesis, the oocyst wall has high levels of dityrosine bonds. These dityrosine crosslinked proteins may provide a structural matrix for assembly of the oocyst wall and contribute to its resilience

Peroxidase catalysed cross-linking of an intrinsically unstructured protein via dityrosine bonds in the oocyst wall of the apicomplexan parasite, Eimeria maxima

Apicomplexan parasites such as Eimeria maxima possess a resilient oocyst wall that protects them upon excretion in host faeces and in the outside world, allowing them to survive between hosts. The wall is formed from the contents of specialised organelles – wall-forming bodies – found in macrogametes of the parasites. The presence of dityrosine in the oocyst wall suggests that peroxidase-catalysed dityrosine cross-linking of tyrosine-rich proteins from wall-forming bodies forms a matrix that is a crucial component of oocyst walls. Bioinformatic analyses showed that one of these tyrosine-rich proteins, EmGAM56, is an intrinsically unstructured protein, dominated by random coil (52–70%), with some α-helix (28–43%) but a relatively low percentage of β-sheet (1–11%); this was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance and circular dichroism. Furthermore, the structural integrity of EmGAM56 under extreme temperatures and pH indicated its disordered nature. The intrinsic lack of structure in EmGAM56 could facilitate its incorporation into the oocyst wall in two ways: first, intrinsically unstructured proteins are highly susceptible to proteolysis, explaining the several differently-sized oocyst wall proteins derived from EmGAM56; and, second, its flexibility could facilitate cross-linking between these tyrosine-rich derivatives. An in vitro cross-linking assay was developed using a recombinant 42 kDa truncation of EmGAM56. Peroxides, in combination with plant or fungal peroxidases, catalysed the rapid formation of dityrosine cross-linked polymers of the truncated EmGAM56, as determined by western blotting and HPLC, confirming this protein's propensity to form dityrosine bonds

Tracking the fate of iron in early development of human blood flukes

Iron (Fe) is an important trace element found in nearly all organisms, and is used as a cofactor in many biological reactions. One role for Fe in some invertebrates is in stabilization of extracellular matrices. The human blood fluke, Schistosoma japonicum, is responsible for significant human disease in developing and tropical nations. Disease in humans arises from host immunological reaction to parasite eggs that lodge in tissues. Schistosomes require Fe for development in their hosts, and store abundant Fe in vitelline (eggshell-forming) cells of the female system. The understanding of Fe metabolism and functionality are aspects of its biology that may be exploited in future therapeutics. The biology of Fe stores in vitelline cells of S. japonicum was investigated to illuminate possible functions of this element in early development of these parasites. Vitelline Fe is stored in yolk ferritin that is upregulated in females and is also expressed at low levels in egg-stages and adult males. Laser microdissection microscopy, coupled with reverse transcriptase- and real time-PCR amplification of schistosome ferritin sequences, confirmed that the vitelline cells are the likely progenitor cells of yolk ferritin. Assessment of Fe concentrations in whole male and whole female adult worms, eggs and purified eggshells by colorimetric assays and mass spectroscopy demonstrated higher levels of Fe in the female parasite, but also high levels of the element in whole parasite eggs and purified eggshell. Qualitative energy dispersive spectroscopy of purified eggshells, revealed that Fe is abundant in the eggshell, the matrix of which is composed of heavily cross-linked eggshell precursor proteins. Thus, vitelline stores of Fe are implicated in eggshell cross-linking in platyhelminths. These observations emphasise the importance of Fe in schistosome metabolism and egg formation and suggest new avenues for disruption of egg formation in these pathogenic parasites