The basic Philosophy behind and the Development of the EU Economic Air Transport Policy and other Policies which affect it

The European Communities were created in 1958 by the Treaty of Rome. Its institutions should guarantee that coherent decisions are taken, implemented and legally enforced in all Member States. Its general rules include, inter alia, provisions on right of establishment, freedom to provide services, competition, state aids and approximation of legislation. However, the Treaty included Article 84, which in its paragraph 2 stated that the Council could take any appropriate decision as to policy for air and sea transport. This was in contrast to what was stated in respect of the other modes of transport. On that basis practically everybody in air transport thought that until such a decision was taken air transport was excluded from Treaty provisions. Consequently while policy was developed for other modes of transport nothing happened in air transport until 1974. In this year the European Court of Justice took a decision concerning the application of social rules in the maritime sector. In this context the Court stated, contrary to the general belief, that the general provisions of the Treaty did apply to sea and air transport and that the exclusion contained in Article 84 only applied to the provisions contained in the transport chapter. It took some time for the Member States to get over the shock but in 1978 they had become convinced that an application of the general principles of the Treaty without attention being given to the specific characteristics of air transport would be too dangerous. They were also to some extent under the impression of the US deregulation, which came into effect in 1978. Therefore, a priority list for air transport was approved1 in 1978 by the Council. This was followed up in 1979 by a memorandum (the first) on air transport (A Community Approach) issued by the Commission. This was the start to a process where the European Union in the course of a number of years (14) developed an economic air transport policy for its internal market. This policy introduced, step by step, not only a liberal system but also safeguards and harmonization measures with a view to permit time for adaptation and to achieve a level playing field. As a consequence, essential provisions included in the bilateral agreements between the twelve Member States were therefore automatically replaced. This development is described in the following and also illustrated in annex 1. The liberalisation concerned the scheduled air transport but ultimately all types of air carriers were covered

A Look Behind the Scenes: Danish Renaissance Martial Arts during the Reign of Christian IV

From the 4th – 7th of July 2016, the annual International Medieval Congress was held in Leeds, England. Among the many different sessions two specifically addressed historical European martial arts. The first session discussed and commented upon modern practices and interpretations of historical European martial arts, each paper being based on good practice and the proper criteria for academic research. The second session, in which this paper was presented, went more “behind the scenes”, discussing the importance of thorough analysis of the historical context which remains essential to forming a foundation for solid hypotheses and interpretations. This article discusses and sheds light upon Danish historical martial art during the reign of the Danish King Christian IV (r.1588 to 1648). At this point in time Europe consisted of many small principalities in addition to a few larger states and kingdoms. Thoughts and ideas could spread as quickly as ripples in water but also be bound by political and religious alliances or enmities, plague, famine and not to mention the role also played by topographical and cultural differences. Thus, at times, vast cultural differences could be seen from region to region. To this should be added a wide range of social factors, such as the role of relationships and mentalities, and the obeying of unspoken norms and codes which can also affect modern researchers’ interpretations of what is shown or described. Therefore, the aim of this article is to provide a series of “behind the scenes” examples which all have the potential to affect hypotheses, interpretations, and overall understandings of the context of historical European martial arts

Black hole evaporation and semiclassicality at large D

Black holes of sufficiently large initial radius are expected to be well described by a semiclassical analysis at least until half of their initial mass has evaporated away. For a small number of spacetime dimensions, this holds as long as the black hole is parametrically larger than the Planck length. In that case, curvatures are small and backreaction onto geometry is expected to be well described by a time-dependent classical metric. We point out that at large $D$, small curvature is insufficient to guarantee a valid semiclassical description of black holes. Instead, the strongest bounds come from demanding that the rate of change of the geometry is small and that black holes scramble information faster than they evaporate. This is a consequence of the enormous power of Hawking radiation in $D$-dimensions due to the large available phase space and the resulting minuscule evaporation times. Asymptotically, only black holes with entropies $S \geq D^{D+3} \log D$ are semiclassical. We comment on implications for realistic quantum gravity models in $D \leq 26$ as well as relations to bounds on theories with a large number of gravitationally interacting light species.Comment: 6 page