MEGA: merger graphs of structure formation

When following the growth of structure in the Universe, we propose replacing merger trees with merger graphs, in which haloes can both merge and split into separate pieces. We show that this leads to smoother mass growth and eliminates catastrophic failures in which massive haloes have no progenitors or descendants. For those who prefer to stick with merger trees, we find that trees derived from our merger graphs have similar mass growth properties to previous methods, but again without catastrophic failures. For future galaxy formation modelling, two different density thresholds can be used to distinguish host haloes (extended galactic haloes, groups and clusters) from higher-density subhaloes: sites of galaxy formation

First Light and Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) X: Environmental Galaxy Bias and Survey Variance at High Redshift

Upcoming deep galaxy surveys with JWST will probe galaxy evolution during the epoch of reionisation (EoR, $5\leq z\leq10$) over relatively compact areas (e.g. $\sim$ 300\,arcmin$^2$ for the JADES GTO survey). It is therefore imperative that we understand the degree of survey variance, to evaluate how representative the galaxy populations in these studies will be. We use the First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) to measure the galaxy bias of various tracers over an unprecedentedly large range in overdensity for a hydrodynamic simulation, and use these relations to assess the impact of bias and clustering on survey variance in the EoR. Star formation is highly biased relative to the underlying dark matter distribution, with the mean ratio of the stellar to dark matter density varying by a factor of 100 between regions of low and high matter overdensity (smoothed on a scale of 14\,$h^{-1}$cMpc). This is reflected in the galaxy distribution -- the most massive galaxies are found solely in regions of high overdensity. As a consequence of the above, galaxies in the EoR are highly clustered, which can lead to large variance in survey number counts. For mean number counts $N\lesssim 100$ (1000), in a unit redshift slice of angular area 300\,arcmin$^2$ (1.4\,deg$^2$), the 2-sigma range in $N$ is roughly a factor of four (two). We present relations between the expected variance and survey area for different survey geometries; these relations will be of use to observers wishing to understand the impact of survey variance on their results.Comment: 14 pages, 17 figures. Paper 10 in the First Light and Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) serie

First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) : IV. The size evolution of galaxies at z ≥ 5

We present the intrinsic and observed sizes of galaxies at z >= 5 in the First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (flares). We employ the large effective volume of flares to produce a sizeable sample of high-redshift galaxies with intrinsic and observed luminosities and half-light radii in a range of rest-frame ultraviolet (UV) and visual photometric bands. This sample contains a significant number of intrinsically ultracompact galaxies in the far-UV (1500 angstrom), leading to a negative intrinsic far-UV size-luminosity relation. However, after the inclusion of the effects of dust these same compact galaxies exhibit observed sizes that are as much as 50 times larger than those measured from the intrinsic emission, and broadly agree with a range of observational samples. This increase in size is driven by the concentration of dust in the core of galaxies, heavily attenuating the intrinsically brightest regions. At fixed luminosity we find a galaxy size redshift evolution with a slope of m = 1.21-1.87 depending on the luminosity sample in question, and we demonstrate the wavelength dependence of the size-luminosity relation that will soon be probed by the James Webb Space Telescope.Peer reviewe

Intrauterine growth restriction increases fetal hepatic gluconeogenic capacity and reduces messenger ribonucleic acid translation initiation and nutrient sensing in fetal liver and skeletal muscle.

Expression of key metabolic genes and proteins involved in mRNA translation, energy sensing, and glucose metabolism in liver and skeletal muscle were investigated in a late-gestation fetal sheep model of placental insufficiency intrauterine growth restriction (PI-IUGR). PI-IUGR fetuses weighed 55% less; had reduced oxygen, glucose, isoleucine, insulin, and IGF-I levels; and had 40% reduction in net branched chain amino acid uptake. In PI-IUGR skeletal muscle, levels of insulin receptor were increased 80%, whereas phosphoinositide-3 kinase (p85) and protein kinase B (AKT2) were reduced by 40%. Expression of eukaryotic initiation factor-4e was reduced 45% in liver, suggesting a unique mechanism limiting translation initiation in PI-IUGR liver. There was either no change (AMP activated kinase, mammalian target of rapamycin) or a paradoxical decrease (protein phosphatase 2A, eukaryotic initiation factor-2 alpha) in activation of major energy and cell stress sensors in PI-IUGR liver and skeletal muscle. A 13- to 20-fold increase in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucose 6 phosphatase mRNA expression in the PI-IUGR liver was-associated with a 3-fold increase in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1 alpha mRNA and increased phosphorylation of cAMP response element binding protein. Thus PI-IUGR is-associated with reduced branched chain amino acid uptake and growth factors, yet up-regulation of proximal insulin signaling and a marked increase in the gluconeogenic pathway. Lack of activation of several energy and stress sensors in fetal liver and skeletal muscle, despite hypoxia and low energy status, suggests a novel strategy for survival in the PI-IUGR fetus but with potential maladaptive consequences for reduced nutrient sensing and insulin sensitivity in postnatal life

First Light and Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) - VI. The colour evolution of galaxies z=5-15

With its exquisite sensitivity, wavelength coverage, and spatial and spectral resolution, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is poised to revolutionize our view of the distant, high-redshift (z > 5) Universe. While Webb's spectroscopic observations will be transformative for the field, photometric observations play a key role in identifying distant objects and providing more comprehensive samples than accessible to spectroscopy alone. In addition to identifying objects, photometric observations can also be used to infer physical properties and thus be used to constrain galaxy formation models. However, inferred physical properties from broad-band photometric observations, particularly in the absence of spectroscopic redshifts, often have large uncertainties. With the development of new tools for forward modelling simulations, it is now routinely possible to predict observational quantities, enabling a direct comparison with observations. With this in mind, in this work, we make predictions for the colour evolution of galaxies at z = 5-15 using the First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (flares) cosmological hydrodynamical simulation suite. We predict a complex evolution with time, driven predominantly by strong nebular line emission passing through individual bands. These predictions are in good agreement with existing constraints from Hubble and Spitzer as well as some of the first results from Webb. We also contrast our predictions with other models in the literature: While the general trends are similar, we find key differences, particularly in the strength of features associated with strong nebular line emission. This suggests photometric observations alone should provide useful discriminating power between different models and physical states of galaxies.Peer reviewe

First Light And Reionization Epoch Simulations (FLARES) VII : The star formation and metal enrichment histories of galaxies in the early Universe

The star formation and metal enrichment histories of galaxies - at any epoch - constitute one of the key properties of galaxies, and their measurement is a core aim of observational extragalactic astronomy. The lack of deep rest-frame optical coverage at high redshift has made robust constraints elusive, but this is now changing thanks to JWST. In preparation for the constraints provided by JWST, we explore the star formation and metal enrichment histories of galaxies at z = 5-13 using the First Light And Reionization Epoch Simulations (FLARES) suite. Built on the EAGLE model, the unique strategy of FLARES allows us to simulate galaxies with a wide range of stellar masses (and luminosities) and environments. While we predict significant redshift evolution of average ages and specific star formation rates, our core result is mostly a flat relationship of age and specific star formation rate with stellar mass. We also find that galaxies in this epoch predominantly have strongly rising star formation histories, albeit with the normalization dropping with redshift and stellar mass. In terms of chemical enrichment, we predict a strong stellar mass-metallicity relation present at z = 10 and beyond alongside significant a-enhancement. Finally, we find no large-scale environmental dependence of the relationship between age, specific star formation rate, or metallicity with stellar mass.Peer reviewe

First light and reionization epoch simulations (FLARES) V : the redshift frontier

JWST is set to transform many areas of astronomy, one of the most exciting is the expansion of the redshift frontier to z > 10. In its first year, alone JWST should discover hundreds of galaxies, dwarfing the handful currently known. To prepare for these powerful observational constraints, we use the First Light And Reionization Epoch simulations (flares) to predict the physical and observational properties of the z > 10 population of galaxies accessible to JWST. This is the first time such predictions have been made using a hydrodynamical model validated at low redshift. Our predictions at z = 10 are broadly in agreement with current observational constraints on the far-UV luminosity function and UV continuum slope beta, though the observational uncertainties are large. We note tension with recent constraints z similar to 13 from Harikane et al. () - compared to these constraints, flares predicts objects with the same space density should have an order-of-magnitude lower luminosity, though this is mitigated slightly if dust attenuation is negligible in these systems. Our predictions suggest that in JWST's first cycle alone, around 600 galaxies should be identified at z > 10, with the first small samples available at z > 13.Peer reviewe

First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) XIV: The Balmer/4000~\AA\ Breaks of Distant Galaxies

With the successful launch and commissioning of JWST we are now able to routinely spectroscopically probe the rest-frame optical emission of galaxies at $z>6$ for the first time. Amongst the most useful spectral diagnostics used in the optical is the Balmer/4000~\AA\ break; this is, in principle, a diagnostic of the mean ages of composite stellar populations. However, the Balmer break is also sensitive to the shape of the star formation history, the stellar (and gas) metallicity, the presence of nebular continuum emission, and dust attenuation. In this work we explore the origin of the Balmer/4000~\AA\ break using the SYNTHESIZER synthetic observations package. We then make predictions of the Balmer/4000~\AA\ break using the First Light and Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) at $5<z<10$. We find that the average break strength weakly correlates with stellar mass and rest-frame far-UV luminosity, but that this is predominantly driven by dust attenuation. We also find that break strength provides a weak diagnostic of the age but performs better as a means to constrain star formation and stellar mass, alongside the UV and optical luminosity, respectively.Comment: 9 pages, 9 figures, submitted to MNRA

Seeing sharper and deeper: JWST's first glimpse of the photometric and spectroscopic properties of galaxies in the epoch of reionisation

We analyse the photometric and spectroscopic properties of four galaxies in the epoch of reionisation (EoR) within the SMACS 0723 JWST Early Release Observations field. Given the known spectroscopic redshifts of these sources, we investigated the accuracy with which photometric redshifts can be derived using NIRCam photometry alone, finding that F115W imaging is essential to distinguish between z~8 galaxies with high equivalent width (EW) [O III] {\lambda}5007 emission and z~10 Balmer break galaxies. We find that all four sources exhibit strong (> 0.6 mag) F356W-F444W colours, which sit at the extreme end of theoretical predictions from numerical simulations. We find that these galaxies deviate (by roughly 0.5 dex) from the local correlation between [O III] {\lambda}5007/H\beta and [Ne III] {\lambda}3869/[O II], which is consistent with the predictions from simulations of high-redshift galaxies. We measure the [O III] {\lambda}5007 rest-frame equivalent widths both directly from the spectroscopy, and indirectly as inferred from the strong F356W-F444W colours, finding large [O III] {\lambda}5007 EWs of 400-1000 {\AA}. The [O III] {\lambda}5007 and H\beta EWs are consistent with those seen in extreme, intensely star-forming dwarf galaxies in the local Universe. Our structural analysis indicates that these galaxies are resolved, exhibiting irregular shapes with bright clumps and colour gradients. In line with the predictions from the FLARES hydrodynamic simulations, such intense star formation and extreme nebular conditions are likely the norm, rather than the exception, in the EoR. Finally, although star-forming galaxies and AGN often occupy similar regions within the [O III] {\lambda}5007/H\beta-[O II]/H{\delta} plane, we find that AGN exhibit distinct, red colours in the F150W-F200W, F200W-F277W plane.Comment: 14 pages, 8 figure

First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) XI: [OIII] emitting galaxies at 5<z<105<z<10

JWST has now made it possible to probe the rest-frame optical line emission of high-redshift galaxies extending to z~9, and potentially beyond. To aid in the interpretation of these emerging constraints, in this work we explore predictions for [OIII] emission in high-redshift galaxies using the First Light and Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES). We produce predictions for the [OIII] luminosity function, its correlation with the UV luminosity, and the distribution of equivalent widths (EWs). We also explore how the [OIII] EW correlates with physical properties including specific star formation rate, metallicity, and dust attenuation. Our predictions are largely consistent with recent observational constraints on the luminosity function, average equivalent widths, and line ratios. However, they fail to reproduce the observed tail of high-EW sources and the number density of extreme line emitters. Possibilities to explain these discrepancies include an additional source of ionising photons and/or greater stochasticity in star formation in the model or photometric scatter and/or bias in the observations. With JWST now rapidly building larger samples and a wider range of emission lines the answer to this remaining discrepancy should be available imminently.Comment: 15 pages, accepted for publication in MNRAS, minor changes from original versio