Distribution, diversity and environmental adaptation of highland papaya (Vasconcellea spp.) in tropical and subtropical America

Vasconcellea species, often referred to as highland papayas, consist of a group of fruit species that are closely related to the common papaya (Carica papaya). The genus deserves special attention as a number of species show potential as raw material in the tropical fruit industry, fresh or in processed products, or as genetic resources in papaya breeding programs. Some species show a very restricted distribution and are included in the IUCN Red List. This study on Vasconcellea distribution and diversity compiled collection data from five Vasconcellea projects and retrieved data from 62 herbaria, resulting in a total of 1,553 georeferenced collection sites, in 16 countries, including all 21 currently known Vasconcellea species. Spatial analysis of species richness clearly shows that Ecuador, Colombia and Peru are areas of high Vasconcellea diversity. Combination of species occurrence data with climatic data delimitates the potential distribution of each species and allows the modeling of potential richness at continent level. Based on these modeled richness maps, Ecuador appears to be the country with the highest potential Vasconcellea diversity. Despite differences in sampling densities, its neighboring countries, Peru and Colombia, possess high modeled species richness as well. A combination of observed richness maps and modeled potential richness maps makes it possible to identify important collection gaps. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of climate data at the collection sites allows us to define climatic preferences and adaptability of the different Vasconcellea species and to compare them with those of the common papaya

Highland papayas in Southern Ecuador : need for conservation actions

Southern Ecuador is considered to be a centre of biodiversity of the so-called highland papayas. In Southern Ecuador, this group, which comprises lesser-known Andean Caricaccae that grow, mostly in the wild, above 1000 mas1, consists of Carica pubescens (A. DC.) Solms-Laub., C. stipulata Badillo, C. x heilbornii Badillo, C. candicans A. Gray, C. weberbaueri Harms., C. parviflora (A. DC.) Solms-Laub., C. microcarpa Jacq, C. monoica Desf. and the new endemic species C. palandensis Badillo, Van den Eynden & Van Damme. At this moment only the natural hybrid C. x heilbornii nm. pentagona Badillo, commercially known as babaco, is getting attention on the continuously expanding subtropical fruit market. Natural hybridisation and presence of accessions of which taxonomical position (at the species level) remains unclear, combined with a limited number of botanical studies, suggest that the taxonomy of the Caricaceae in Southern Ecuador is still not completely explained. Nevertheless, local collections and characterisation studies show that, from an agronomical point of view, these highland papayas show a big potential for the future. Organoleptic characteristics of some accessions and species are very promising, especially for use as juices and marmalades. Making use of natural or artificial hybridisation can even expand this potential. Analyses of the activity of the proteolytic enzyme complex (papain) of these local accessions and species showed that the latex of the unripe fruit possessed up to 15 times more activity than papaya (Carica papaya L.) cultivars selected and grown for their high enzyme activity. This potential, which needs further detailed study, is increasingly under threat as population is increasing, putting pressure on fallow and forest land and concentrating agricultural systems on food and cash crops, consequently neglecting little known native fruit crops and reducing the natural vegetation in which they occur. A survey on local knowledge of these highland papayas showed that younger people have significantly less knowledge on them than older people proving the urgent need for further studies and conservation strategies

Mapa de Riesgos Penales como parte estructural o no de un Criminal Compliance en la actividad minera empresarial

La actividad minera que además de compleja resulta de por sí riesgosa, constituye un importante sector productivo en la economía ecuatoriana. La Constitución de la República del Ecuador, al reconocer a la naturaleza en la que se desarrolla esta actividad, como sujeto de derechos, le otorga también un conjunto sistemático de leyes que la protegen, entre ellas, la penal. Esta actividad que puede ser desarrollada tanto por personas naturales individualizadas, como por empresas de cualquier tamaño y en pequeña, mediana o alta escala, requiere para su funcionamiento la observancia de regulaciones administrativas, que de incumplírselas pueden desembocar en sanciones penales a título de responsabilidad penal o no. En este sentido, el COIP, tipifica dos conductas delictuales propias que regulan la actividad y el financiamiento o suministro de maquinarias ilícitos para la extracción de recursos mineros, respectivamente. Por su parte, y pese a que la regulación ecuatoriana sobre la responsabilidad penal de la persona jurídica, no contempla al compliance como eximente o atenuante de esa responsabilidad, este trabajo prevé la importancia de que el sector empresarial, cuente al menos con un Mapa de Riesgos Penales, que le permita en ejercicio del correcto actuar empresarial, contar con un instrumento de detección, valoración y prevención de conductas delictivas, propias y asociadas a la actividad minera, con miras por una parte a evitar la comisión de potenciales delitos, y por otra, a ejercitar la cultura de cumplimiento de la Ley penal. Luego del análisis documental de información especializada y de la normativa ecuatoriana, ensayamos como parte del Mapa de Riesgos un catálogo de potenciales delitos propios o conexos de la actividad minera, así como las respectivas medidas preventivas a adoptare