Synthesizing cognitive load and self-regulation theory: a theoretical framework and research agenda

An exponential increase in the availability of information over the last two decades has asked for novel theoretical frameworks to examine how students optimally learn under these new learning conditions, given the limitations of human processing ability. In this special issue and in the current editorial introduction, we argue that such a novel theoretical framework should integrate (aspects of) cognitive load theory and selfregulated learning theory. We describe the effort monitoring and regulation (EMR) framework, which outlines how monitoring and regulation of effort are neglected but essential aspects of self-regulated learning. Moreover, the EMR framework emphasizes the importance of optimizing cognitive load during self-regulated learning by reducing the unnecessary load on the primary task or distributing load optimally between the primary learning task and metacognitive aspects of the learning task. Three directions for future research that derive from the EMR framework and that are discussed in this editorial introduction are: (1) How do students monitor effort? (2) How do students regulate effort? and (3) How do we optimize cognitive load during self-regulated learning tasks (during and after the primary task)? Finally, the contributions to the current special issue are introduced

Teaching the science of learning

The science of learning has made a considerable contribution to our understanding of effective teaching and learning strategies. However, few instructors outside of the field are privy to this research. In this Tutorial Review, we focus on six specific cognitive strategies that have received robust support from decades of research: spaced practice, interleaving, retrieval practice, elaboration, concrete examples, and dual coding. We describe the basic research behind each strategy and relevant applied research, present examples of existing and suggested implementation, and make recommendations for further research that would broaden the reach of these strategies

Efficacy of SpayVac® as a Contraceptive in Feral Horses

We tested the efficacy of 2 formulations of the immunocontraceptive SpayVac®, which packages the immunogen porcine zona pellucida (PZP) and an adjuvant in multilamellar liposomes, as a contraceptive in captive feral horses (Equus caballus) for 3 consecutive breeding seasons (Pauls Valley, OK, USA; 2012–2014) following a single inoculation. Annual fertility rates in control adult female horses (n=30 each yr) were 100%, 96.7%, and 100%. In the nonaqueous treatment group, fertility was 16.7% in the first year (n=30) and 75.9% in the second year (n=29), at which point we dropped the group from the study. Fertility rates in the aqueous group were 13.3%, 46.7%, and 43.3% (n=30 each yr). Fifteen of the females in the aqueous group were infertile in all 3 years. Across 11 sampling dates postvaccination, mean PZP antibody titers in serum were 33.7–91.9% greater in nonpregnant females than pregnant females for the aqueous treatment group and 7.8–82.8% greater for the nonaqueous group. However, the 15 consistently infertile females did not necessarily have the greatest antibody titers. Reactions at the injection site occurred in 29.8% of the 84 females that received an injection other than saline solution, but there was no evidence that the reactions were painful or affected mobility. The nonaqueous formulation produced more local reactions than did the aqueous, but presence of PZP did not increase the frequency of reactions above that seen with liposomes+adjuvant. Uterine edema was not found at frequencies greater than would be expected in untreated females. Additional research to explore relationships between vaccine dose, adjuvant, and efficacy is warranted

Providing worked examples for learning multiple principles

Schalk L, Roelle J, Saalbach H, Berthold K, Stern E, Renkl A. Providing worked examples for learning multiple principles. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 2020;34(4):813-824.Worked examples support learning. However, if they introduce easy-to-confuse concepts or principles, specific ways of providing worked examples may influence their effectiveness. Multiple worked examples can be introduced blocked (i.e., several for the same principle) or interleaved (i.e., switching between principles), and can be sequentially or simultaneously presented. Crossing these two factors provides four ways of presenting worked examples: blocked/sequential, interleaved/sequential, blocked/simultaneous, and interleaved/simultaneous. In an experiment with university students (N= 174), we investigated how these two factors influence the acquisition of procedural and conceptual knowledge about different, but closely related (thus, easy-to-confuse) stochastic principles. Additionally, we assessed the ability of students to discriminate between principles with verification tasks. Simultaneous presentation benefitted procedural knowledge whereas, interleaved presentation benefitted conceptual knowledge. No significant differences were found for verification tasks. The results suggest that it is worthwhile to adapt the presentation of the worked examples to the learning goals