Submarine groundwater discharge: Natural radioactivity accumulation in a wetland ecosystem

ISI Document Delivery No.: 222IJ Times Cited: 1 Cited Reference Count: 70 Cited References: Al-Masri MS, 2000, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V49, P345, DOI 10.1016/S0265-931X(99)00124-1 Al-Masri MS, 2008, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V99, P322, DOI 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.08.021 BACON MP, 1976, EARTH PLANET SC LETT, V32, P277, DOI 10.1016/0012-821X(76)90068-6 BALISTRIERI LS, 1995, GEOCHIM COSMOCHIM AC, V59, P4845, DOI 10.1016/0016-7037(95)00334-7 Beck AJ, 2010, MAR CHEM, V121, P145, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2010.04.003 Bhat R, 2005, J ENVIRON MONITOR, V7, P856, DOI 10.1039/b506116d Bochicchio F, 2008, APPL RADIAT ISOTOPES, V66, P1561, DOI 10.1016/j.apradiso.2007.11.019 Boehm AB, 2004, ENVIRON SCI TECHNOL, V38, P3558, DOI 10.1021/es035385a BROWN JE, 2010, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V102, P430 Burnett WC, 2003, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V69, P21, DOI 10.1016/S0265-931X(03)00084-5 Cable JE, 1996, EARTH PLANET SC LETT, V144, P591, DOI 10.1016/S0012-821X(96)00173-2 Cai WJ, 2003, GEOCHIM COSMOCHIM AC, V67, P631, DOI 10.1016/S0016-7037(02)01167-5 Carvalho FP, 2007, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V98, P298, DOI 10.1016/j.jenvrad-2007.05.007 Carvalho FP, 2011, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V102, P462, DOI 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2010.10.011 Cerne M, 2011, NUCL ENG DES, V241, P1282, DOI 10.1016/j.nucengdes.2010.04.003 Charette MA, 2007, LIMNOL OCEANOGR, V52, P230 Charette MA, 2003, MAR CHEM, V84, P113, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2003.07.001 Charette MA, 2001, LIMNOL OCEANOGR, V46, P465 Charette MA, 2006, GEOCHIM COSMOCHIM AC, V70, P811, DOI 10.1016/j.gca.2005.10.019 CHERRY RD, 1994, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V24, P273, DOI 10.1016/0265-931X(94)90044-2 Cook PG, 2008, J HYDROL, V354, P213, DOI 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.63.016 Ekdal E, 2006, RADIAT MEAS, V41, P72, DOI 10.1016/j.radmeas.2004.12.014 Fowler SW, 2011, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V102, P448, DOI 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2010.10.008 Garcia-Orellana J, 2006, J GEOPHYS RES-ATMOS, V111, DOI 10.1029/2005JD006660 Garcia-Solsona E, 2008, MAR CHEM, V109, P292, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2008.02.007 Garcia-Solsona E, 2010, BIOGEOCHEMISTRY, V97, P211, DOI 10.1007/s10533-009-9368-y Grossi C, 2012, RADIAT MEAS, V47, P149, DOI 10.1016/j.radmeas.2011.11.006 Grossi C, 2011, RADIAT MEAS, V46, P112, DOI 10.1016/j.radmeas.2010.07.021 Hameed PS, 1997, J BIOSCIENCE, V22, P627 Hovmand MF, 2009, ENVIRON POLLUT, V157, P404, DOI 10.1016/j.envpol.2008.09.038 IAEA, 2010, IAEA TECHN REP SER, V472 Karunakara N, 2000, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V51, P349, DOI 10.1016/S0265-931X(00)00094-1 KELECOM A, 1999, QUIM NOVA, V22, P666, DOI 10.1590/S0100-40421999000500007 KUFEL I, 1980, B ACAD POL SCI BIOL, V28, P563 LAMBRECHTS A, 1992, RADIAT PROT DOSIM, V45, P253 LAPOINTE BE, 1990, BIOGEOCHEMISTRY, V10, P289 Masque P, 2002, CONT SHELF RES, V22, P2127, DOI 10.1016/S0278-4343(02)00074-2 MATARRANZ JLM, 2004, COLECCION INFORM TEC, V13 Mejias M, 2012, J HYDROL, V464, P27, DOI 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.06.020 MEJIAS M, 2007, ENVIRON GEOL, V54, P521 MOORE WS, 1973, J GEOPHYS RES, V78, P8880, DOI 10.1029/JC078i036p08880 Moore WS, 1999, MAR CHEM, V65, P111, DOI 10.1016/S0304-4203(99)00014-6 Moore WS, 1996, NATURE, V380, P612, DOI 10.1038/380612a0 Moore WS, 2003, BIOGEOCHEMISTRY, V66, P75, DOI 10.1023/B:BIOG.0000006065.77764.a0 Moreno V, 2008, RADIAT MEAS, V43, P1532, DOI 10.1016/j.radmeas.2008.06.003 NAZAROFF WW, RADON ITS DECAY PROD *NKS, 2009, NKS181 NORD NUCL SAF Oikawa S, 2003, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V65, P203, DOI 10.1016/S0265-931X(02)00097-8 PEVERLY JH, 1995, ECOL ENG, V5, P21, DOI 10.1016/0925-8574(95)00018-E PIETRZAKFLIS Z, 1995, SCI TOTAL ENVIRON, V162, P139, DOI 10.1016/0048-9697(95)04445-7 PietrzakFlis Z, 1997, SCI TOTAL ENVIRON, V203, P157, DOI 10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00144-7 Poncela LSQ, 2004, ENVIRON INT, V29, P1091, DOI 10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00102-8 RIGAUD S, LIMNOL OCEA IN PRESS Rodellas V, 2012, J HYDROL, V466, P11, DOI 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.07.005 Santos IR, 2008, J HYDROL, V353, P275, DOI 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.02.010 Schmidt A, 2010, HYDROL EARTH SYST SC, V14, P79 Shaheed K, 1997, ENVIRON POLLUT, V95, P371, DOI 10.1016/S0269-7491(96)00131-5 Sheppard SC, 2008, J ENVIRON RADIOACTIV, V99, P933, DOI 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.11.018 SKIPPERUD L, J ENV RADIO IN PRESS Stewart GM, 2003, LIMNOL OCEANOGR, V48, P1193 Stewart GM, 2008, RADIOACTIV ENVIRONM, V13, P269, DOI 10.1016/S1569-4860(07)00008-3 Strok M, 2011, CHEMOSPHERE, V82, P970, DOI 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.10.075 Szegvary T, 2009, ATMOS ENVIRON, V43, P1536, DOI 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.11.025 TALBOT RW, 1984, GEOCHIM COSMOCHIM AC, V48, P2053, DOI 10.1016/0016-7037(84)90386-7 Tateda Y, 2003, CONT SHELF RES, V23, P295, DOI 10.1016/S0278-4343(02)00167-X *UNESCO, 2004, IHP VI SERIES GROUND, V5 *UNSCEAR, 2000, J GEOPHYS RES OCEANS, V109 VALIELA I, 1990, BIOGEOCHEMISTRY, V10, P177 Ye ZH, 1997, ANN BOT-LONDON, V80, P363, DOI 10.1006/anbo.1997.0456 Zarroca M., 2014, Hydrological Processes, V28, P2382, DOI 10.1002/hyp.9793 Garcia-Orellana, Jordi Rodellas, Valenti Casacuberta, Nuria Lopez-Castillo, Ester Vilarrasa, Marta Moreno, Victoria Garcia-Solsona, Ester Masque, Pere Masque, Pere/B-7379-2008 Masque, Pere/0000-0002-1789-320X Spanish Government project EDASMAR [CGL2006-09274/HID]; Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear project [2686-SRA]; MICINN (Spain) [AP2008-03044]; ICREA Academia; Generalitat de Catalunya The authors would like to thank the assistance in field and laboratory work from our colleagues at the Laboratori de Radioactivitat Ambiental (Universitat de Barcelona). This project has been funded partially by the Spanish Government project EDASMAR (Ref. CGL2006-09274/HID) and the Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear project (Ref. 2686-SRA). V.R. acknowledges financial support through a PhD fellowship (AP2008-03044) from MICINN (Spain). Support for the research of PM was received through the prize ICREA Academia, funded by the Generalitat de Catalunya. We also want to thank the collaboration of Anna Cherta, Maribel Forner (Hotel Marina), Camping Eden, FACSA, School "Jaume Sainz" and the Peniscola Municipality. We want also to thank Gerard Carmona and Lluis Benejam for their support during fish sampling. 1 ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV AMSTERDAM MAR CHEM SISubmarine groundwater discharge (SGD) has attracted the interest from the scientific community over the past decade for its impact on biogeochemical cycles of coastal ecosystems and/or management of water resources. SGD is associated with a flow of natural radionuclides (Ra isotopes and Rn-222), which are often used as SGD tracers that can significantly increase the natural background radiation. Although in many circumstances the discharge is produced directly to the sea and therefore the increase of natural radioactivity levels can generally be considered negligible due to a dilution processes, the discharge into coastal wetlands (marshes, coastal lagoons or ponds), with somewhat restricted exchange with the open sea, may require a detailed study of the distribution of natural radionuclides and their effects on the coastal ecosystem. The Peniscola marsh is a Mediterranean coastal wetland where such studies may be of special interest because it is fed exclusively by groundwater, mainly discharging from a deep aquifer with high natural radioactivity content. In the Peniscola marsh, brackish groundwater discharging through the wetland sediments is enriched in radionuclides to maximum values of 2.8 and 616 kBq m(-3) of Ra-226 and Rn-222, respectively. These high dissolved concentrations result in high levels of Rn-222 in air (up to 36 Bq m(-3)) and Pb-210 and Po-210 dissolved in water (20 and 5.7 Bq m(-3), respectively). These elevated levels of natural radionuclides in the Peniscola marsh are also responsible of the significant increase in Po-210 and Pb-210 contents in both fish and plants. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

A multi-method approach for groundwater resource assessment in coastal carbonate (karst) aquifers: the case study of Sierra Almijara (southern Spain)

Understanding the transference of water resources within hydrogeological systems, particularly in coastal aquifers, in which groundwater discharge may occur through multiple pathways (through springs, into rivers and streams, towards the sea, etc.), is crucial for sustainable groundwater use. This research aims to demonstrate the usefulness of the application of conventional recharge assessment methods coupled to isotopic techniques for accurately quantifying the hydrogeological balance and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) from coastal carbonate aquifers. Sierra Almijara (Southern Spain), a carbonate aquifer formed of Triassic marbles, is considered as representative of Mediterranean coastal karst formations. The use of a multi-method approach has permitted the computation of a wide range of groundwater infiltration rates (17–60%) by means of direct application of hydrometeorological methods (Thornthwaite and Kessler) and spatially distributed information (modified APLIS method). A spatially weighted recharge rate of 42% results from the most coherent information on physiographic and hydrogeological characteristics of the studied system. Natural aquifer discharge and groundwater abstraction have been volumetrically quantified, based on flow and water-level data, while the relevance of SGD was estimated from the spatial analysis of salinity, 222Rn and the short-lived radium isotope 224Ra in coastal seawater. The total mean aquifer discharge (44.9–45.9 hm3 year−1) is in agreement with the average recharged groundwater (44.7 hm3 year−1), given that the system is volumetrically equilibrated during the study period. Besides the groundwater resources assessment, the methodological aspects of this research may be interesting for groundwater management and protection strategies in coastal areas, particularly karst environments

Seasonal variation and sources of dissolved trace metals in Maó Harbour, Minorca Island

[eng] The environmental conditions of semi-enclosed coastal water-bodies are directly related to the catchment, human activities, and oceanographic setting in which they are located. As a result of low tidal forcing, and generally weak currents, waters in Mediterranean harbours are poorly renewed, leading to quality deterioration. Here, we characterise the seasonal variation of trace metals (i.e. Co, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in surface waters, and trace metal content in sediments from Maó Harbour, a semi-enclosed coastal ecosystem in the NW Mediterranean Sea. Our results show that most of the dissolved trace metals in the waters of Maó Harbour exhibit a marked inner - outer concentration gradient, suggesting a permanent input into the inner part of the harbour. In general, metal concentrations in the waters of Maó Harbour are higher than those in offshore waters. Concentration of Cu (21 ± 8 nM), Fe (9.2 ± 3.2 nM) and Pb (1.3 ± 0.4 nM) are particularly high when compared with other coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. The concentration of some metals such as Cu and Zn increases during summertime, when the human population and boat traffic increase during the tourism season, and when resuspension from the metal enriched sediments is higher. The evaluation of the metal sources in the harbour reveals that, compared with other putative sources such as runoff, aerosol deposition and fresh groundwater discharges, contaminated sediments are the main source of the metals found in the water column, most likely through vessel-driven resuspension events. This study contributes to the understanding of the processes that control the occurrence and distribution of trace metals in Maó Harbour, thus aiding in the effective management of the harbour, and enhancing the overall quality of the seawater ecosystem

Quantifying groundwater discharge from different sources into a Mediterranean wetland by using Rn-222 and Ra isotopes

ISI Document Delivery No.: 022UG Times Cited: 5 Cited Reference Count: 38 Cited References: Ballesteros B.J., 2007, COASTAL AQUIFERS CHA, V23, P549 Beck AJ, 2007, MAR CHEM, V106, P419, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2007.03.008 Burnett W.C., 2001, J RADIOANAL NUCL CHE, V69, P21 Burnett WC, 2006, SCI TOTAL ENVIRON, V367, P498, DOI 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.05.009 Burnett WC, 2010, J HYDROL, V380, P298, DOI 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.11.005 Changnon SA, 1988, J CLIMATE, V1, P1239, DOI 10.1175/1520-0442(1988)0012.0.CO;2 Charette MA, 2007, LIMNOL OCEANOGR, V52, P230 Charette MA, 2003, MAR CHEM, V84, P113, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2003.07.001 Charette MA, 2001, LIMNOL OCEANOGR, V46, P465 Cook PG, 2008, J HYDROL, V354, P213, DOI 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.63.016 Corbett DR, 1997, J HYDROL, V203, P209, DOI 10.1016/S0022-1694(97)00103-0 De Stefano L., 2004, FRESHWATER TOURISM M de Weys J, 2011, ENVIRON SCI TECHNOL, V45, P3310, DOI 10.1021/es104071r Garcia-Orellana J, 2006, J GEOPHYS RES-ATMOS, V111, DOI 10.1029/2005JD006660 Garcia-Solsona E, 2008, MAR CHEM, V109, P292, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2008.02.007 Garcia-Solsona E, 2010, BIOGEOSCIENCES, V7, P2625, DOI 10.5194/bg-7-2625-2010 Garcia-Solsona E, 2008, MAR CHEM, V109, P198, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2007.11.006 Hancock GJ, 1996, EARTH PLANET SC LETT, V138, P145, DOI 10.1016/0012-821X(95)00218-2 Kluge T, 2007, HYDROL EARTH SYST SC, V11, P1621 KRABBENHOFT DP, 1990, WATER RESOUR RES, V26, P2445, DOI 10.1029/90WR01135 Macintyre S, 1995, BIOGENIC TRACE GASES, P52 Mejias M, 2008, ENVIRON GEOL, V54, P521, DOI 10.1007/s00254-007-0845-0 Mejias M., 2012, J HYDROL Moore W. S., 2000, J GEOPHYS RES, V105, P117, DOI DOI 10.1029/1999JC000289 MOORE WS, 1973, J GEOPHYS RES, V78, P8880, DOI 10.1029/JC078i036p08880 Moore WS, 1996, J GEOPHYS RES-OCEANS, V101, P1321, DOI 10.1029/95JC03139 Moore WS, 2006, J GEOPHYS RES-OCEANS, V111, DOI 10.1029/2005JC003041 PADILLA A, 1995, J HYDROL, V168, P73, DOI 10.1016/0022-1694(94)02648-U Pearce F., 1994, CONSERVATION MEDITER Rama, 1996, GEOCHIM COSMOCHIM AC, V60, P4645 Sanchez-Navarro J.A., 2004, HYDROGEOL J, V12, P601, DOI 10.1007/s10040-004-0330-8 Santos IR, 2008, J HYDROL, V353, P275, DOI 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.02.010 Schmidt A, 2010, HYDROL EARTH SYST SC, V14, P79 SCHOT PP, 1993, J HYDROL, V141, P197, DOI 10.1016/0022-1694(93)90050-J Smith CG, 2008, EARTH PLANET SC LETT, V273, P312, DOI 10.1016/j.epsl.2008.06.043 Sun Y, 1998, MAR CHEM, V62, P299, DOI 10.1016/S0304-4203(98)00019-X UNSCEAR, 2000, SOURC EFF ION RAD, V1 Young MB, 2008, MAR CHEM, V109, P377, DOI 10.1016/j.marchem.2007.07.010 Rodellas, Valenti Garcia-Orellana, Jordi Garcia-Solsona, Ester Masque, Pere Antonio Dominguez, Jose Ballesteros, Bruno J. Mejias, Miguel Zarroca, Mario Rodellas, Valenti/F-3475-2013; Masque, Pere/B-7379-2008 Masque, Pere/0000-0002-1789-320X Spanish Government project EDASMAR [CGL2006-09274/HID]; Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear project [2686-SRA]; MICINN (Spain) [AP2008-03044]; Plan Nacional de I-D+i, Spain [EX2009-0651]; ICREA Academia; Generalitat de Catalunya The authors gratefully acknowledge our colleagues at the Laboratori de Radioactivitat Ambiental for their help and assistance during field work. This project has been funded partially by the Spanish Government project EDASMAR (Ref. CGL2006-09274/HID) and the Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear project 2686-SRA. V.R. acknowledges financial support through a PhD fellowship (AP2008-03044) from MICINN (Spain). Support from a post-doctoral fellowship to E.G.-S. (EX2009-0651; Plan Nacional de I-D+i 2010-2012, Spain) is acknowledged. Support for the research of P.M. was received through the prize ICREA Academia, funded by the Generalitat de Catalunya. 5 ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV AMSTERDAM J HYDROLGroundwater discharge constitutes the main water inflow of many coastal wetlands. Despite the potential of Ra isotopes and Rn-222 as tracers of groundwater discharge, the use of these radionuclides to quantify the groundwater inflow in coastal wetlands has been only scarcely addressed in the literature. The main goal of this study is to evaluate the use of Rn-222 and Ra isotopes to estimate the contribution of distinct groundwater sources into a Mediterranean coastal wetland (the Peniscola marsh, Castello, Spain). The Peniscola marsh is a small shallow wetland nourished by groundwater coming from four different flowpaths: (i) a deep flow from the regional carbonate aquifer of El Maestrat, (ii) a shallow flow and (iii) an intermediate flow, both from the Irta Range and the detritic Vinaros-Peniscola aquifer, and (iv) seawater intrusion. Data on Ra-226, Rn-222 and salinity obtained in summer 2007 revealed that the deep groundwater contribution was 15% of the total water inflow, whereas the shallow and intermediate flow paths represented 32% and 48%, respectively. Seawater accounted only for the remaining 5% inputs to the wetland. Ra isotopes also allowed estimating the marsh water age in 1.2 days. Both the groundwater contributions derived from Rn-222 measurements and the Ra-derived marsh water age agreed well with the direct measurements obtained using propeller flow meters, evidencing the effectiveness of the used methods. An interannual comparison between the estimated groundwater inflow and the precipitation revealed that shallow groundwater flows respond to local precipitation, whereas the deep groundwater flow from the carbonate aquifer is dominated by a constant baseflow. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Influence of submarine groundwater discharge on Po-210 and Pb-210 bioaccumulation in fish tissues

International audienceThis study presents the results of the accumulation of Po-210 and Pb-210 in fish tissues and organs in a brackish-water marshland that is characterized by high concentrations of Rn-222 and Ra-226 supplied by submarine groundwater discharge (SGD). Tissues and organs from Cyprinus carpio, Chelon labrosus and Carassius auratus in the wetland were significantly enriched by both Pb-210 and Po-210 (up to 55 and 66 times, respectively) compared to blanks. The major input route of Pb-210 and Po-210 into the fish body seems to be through ingestion, due to the high levels of Pb-210 and Po-210 found in the gut content as well as in organs involved in digestion and metabolism (i.e. gut, kidney and hepatopancreas). Results showed that Po-210 was more accumulated in all fish tissues and organs except for the spine, which showed a higher affinity for Pb-210, due to its capacity to replace Ca from apatite in bones. Over all the variables analyzed, fish tissues/organs and, secondarily, fish species were the most important factors explaining the concentration of radionuclides, whereas fish length and the sampling location played a minor role. The relationship of the two radionuclides varied markedly among tissues and their concentration levels were only correlated in gills, gut and, marginally, in spines. In general, the highest values of Pb-210 and Po-210 concentrations in tissues were found on C. labrosus tissues rather C auratus and C carpio. This study demonstrates that inputs of natural radionuclides supplied by SGD to coastal semi-enclosed areas (such as marshlands, lagoons or ponds) may significantly increase the contents of Pb-210 and Po-210 in fish tissues/organs. Thus, this study represents one of the first evidences of direct ecological effects derived from SGD. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

New perspectives on the use of 224Ra/228Ra and 222Rn/226Ra activity ratios in groundwater studies

The naturally occurring Ra isotopes (223Ra; T1/2 = 11.4 d, 224Ra; T1/2 = 3.66 d, 226Ra; T1/2 = 1,600 y, and 228Ra; T1/2 = 5.7 y) and Rn (222Rn; T1/2 = 3.82 d) have been widely applied as environmental tracers. The application of these radioactive tracers has mainly been restricted to the evaluation of oceanographic and land-ocean interaction processes, although in recent years their use has also been extended to the study of groundwater systems. In this context, the activity ratios of 224Ra/228Ra and 222Rn/226Ra can be instrumental in providing key information on groundwater transit times in aquifers and those processes governing groundwater discharge into the coastal sea (often referred to as Submarine Groundwater Discharge or SGD). This work evaluates the potential use of these activity ratios as proxies for investigating groundwater systems through an advective transport model that integrates the radionuclides involved in these activity ratios (224Ra, 228Ra, 226Ra, and 222Rn) and their immediate parents into a single formulation. The results provided by the transport model indicate that the main factors controlling the 224Ra/228Ra and 222Rn/226Ra activity ratios are the alpha recoil supply, the retardation factor of Ra, and the groundwater transit times. The advective transport model and the activity ratios are used to present novel applications that interrelate the disciplines of hydrogeology and coastal oceanography. The main applications include the determination of groundwater transit times and the assessment of pathways and end-members related to submarine groundwater discharge processes. These applications were tested in a Mediterranean coastal aquifer.This work was partly funded by the projects PID2019-110212RB-C22, CGL2016-77122-C2-1-R/2-R and PID2019-110311RB-C21 of the Spanish Government and the project TerraMAr ACA210/18/00007 of the Catalan Water Agency. The authors want to thank the support of the Generalitat de Catalunya to MERS (2017 SGR-1588) and GHS (2017 SGR 1485) for additional funding. We would like to thank all the colleagues from the Laboratori de Radioactivitat Ambiental (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona). We would also like to thank Leon Humphries for his detailed English corrections. We would like to thank SIMMAR (Serveis Integrals de Manteniment del Maresme) and the Consell Comarcal del Maresme in the construction of the research site. M. Diego‐Feliu acknowledges the economic support from the FI‐2017 fellowships of the Generalitat de Catalunya autonomous government (2017FI_B_00365). V. Rodellas acknowledges financial support from the Beatriu de Pinós postdoctoral program of the Generalitat de Catalunya autonomous government (2017‐BP‐00334). A. Alorda‐Kleinglass acknowledges financial support from ICTA “Unit of Excellence” (MinECo, MDM2015‐0552‐17‐1) and PhD fellowship, BES‐2017‐080740. T. Goyetche acknowledges PhD fellowship (BES‐2017‐080028) from the FPI Program by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness. A. Folch is a Serra Húnter Fellow.Peer reviewe