Population dynamics and health status of free-roaming dogs in Bhutan

In 2009 a capture-neuter-vaccinate-release (CNVR) programme commenced in Bhutan to control the dog population and to reduce the number of cases of rabies in humans and other animals. Limited understanding of the community’s attitudes towards dog population control and the population dynamics of the free-roaming dog population in Bhutan motivated the study reported in this thesis. Household surveys were undertaken in six Dzongkhags to determine the knowledge, attitudes and practices of the community towards dog population control and to describe the demographics and management of owned dogs. Approximately 90% of the Bhutanese community believed that stray dogs were a problem to society and 77% believed they presented a threat to human health. Most participants (84%) were in favour of dog population control with birth control being the preferred method. A need to develop educational programmes on rabies and the dog population specifically targeting farmers and women from rural areas was identified. The total owned dog population was estimated at 71,245 with 24.4% of the households in the urban areas and 40.8% of the households in rural areas owning dogs. Forty percent of dog owners did not confine their dogs. Based on the number of owned dogs and the ratio of owned to stray dogs presented to the CNVR clinic, the stray dog population was estimated at 48,379. The population characteristics of both owned and stray dogs that were presented to CNVR clinics from 01 July 2011 to 30 June 2013 were described. More than half (53.3%) of the dogs presented to the CNVR clinic were free-roaming dogs, with comparable numbers of males and females presented. Although pregnant bitches were seen throughout the year, more pregnancies were observed from September to December. Field population survey undertaken in the main towns of six Dzongkhags to estimate the programme’s coverage in January and February 2012 showed overall CNVR coverage of 52% ranging from 32% in Bumthang to 72% in Samdrup Jongkhar. Field population survey was undertaken in Thimphu city to estimate the size of the free-roaming dog population and to assess the health status of dogs. The free-roaming dog population in Thimphu Municipal area was highest in June 2011 at 6,033 (95% CI 5,644 – 6,430), prior to which there had been no CNVR campaign for 15 months. From July 2011 to September 2014 the free-roaming dog population size remained relatively constant (range 5,765 to 5,949 dogs) as CNVR campaigns were regularly carried out. Neutered dogs had a significantly lower prevalence of antibodies to canine distemper virus (44.2%) and canine parvovirus CPV (4.0%) than entire dogs (52.9 & 18.4%, respectively) (P < 0.01); and neutered dogs had significantly higher body condition scores than entire dogs (P < 0.01). The studies presented in this thesis have demonstrated that the success of a CNVR programme will depend on the initial planning of the programme which includes assessing the size of the local dog population and continuous monitoring and evaluation of the programme. To effectively control the dog population in Bhutan and to address problems associated with free-roaming dogs, it is recommended that: regular CNVR programmes are carried out throughout the country; female dogs, especially during the breeding season, are specifically targeted; programmes are monitored regularly; community participation in programmes is encouraged; and legislation on responsible dog ownership is implemented

Rabies virus strains circulating in Bhutan: implications for control.

We report a molecular epidemiological study of rabies virus strains circulating in animal populations in Bhutan, and investigate potential origins of these viruses. Twenty-three rabies virus isolates originating from dogs and other domestic animals were characterized by sequencing the partial nucleoprotein (N) gene (395 bp). Phylogenetic analysis was conducted and the Bhutanese isolates were compared with rabies viruses originating from other parts of the world. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Bhutanese isolates were highly similar and were closely related to Indian strains and South Asian Arctic–like–1 viruses. Our study suggests that the rabies viruses spreading in southern parts of Bhutan have originated from a common ancestor, perhaps from the Indian virus strain. Keywords: molecular epidemiology, rabies, Arctic–like virus, BhutanThailand Research Fund (grant No.DBG5180026

Rabies virus strains circulating in Bhutan: implications for control.

postprintWe report a molecular epidemiological study of rabies virus strains circulating in animal populations in Bhutan, and investigate potential origins of these viruses. Twenty-three rabies virus isolates originating from dogs and other domestic animals were characterized by sequencing the partial nucleoprotein (N) gene (395 bp). Phylogenetic analysis was conducted and the Bhutanese isolates were compared with rabies viruses originating from other parts of the world. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Bhutanese isolates were highly similar and were closely related to Indian strains and South Asian Arctic–like–1 viruses. Our study suggests that the rabies viruses spreading in southern parts of Bhutan have originated from a common ancestor, perhaps from the Indian virus strain. Keywords: molecular epidemiology, rabies, Arctic–like virus, BhutanThailand Research Fund (grant No.DBG5180026

The epidemiology of free-roaming dog and cat populations in the Wellington region of New Zealand : a dissertation presented in partial fullfilment [sic] of the requirements for the degree of Master of Veterinary Studies at Massey University

We present analyses of details of dog and cat submissions to theWellington Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals shelter from July 1999 to February 2006. Our aims were to document the demographic, temporal, and spatial characteristics of the free-roaming and surrendered dog and cat population in the SPCA catchment area. The motivation for this research was to identify factors determining population growth which should in turn provide a more quantitative basis for refining strategies to control the number of free-roaming dogs and cats in this area of New Zealand. Throughout the study period a total of 3992 dogs and 14343 cats were submitted to the Wellington shelter. On average, 11 dogs (range 1 – 41) and 40 cats (range 3 – 104) were presented to the shelter in any given week. Approximately one half (2065 of 3978, 52%) of the dogs and three quarters of the cats (10431 of 14323, 73%) were classified as freeroaming (that is, animals that were wild, stray, abandoned, or lost). The age structures of submitted dogs and cats were skewed towards younger age groups (< 12 months) with little difference between sexes. A higher proportion of surrendered animals were desexed (16% dogs, cats 22%) compared with those presented as free-roaming (dogs 4%, cats 15%). The number of free-roaming dogs and cats presented to the shelter each year steadily decreased from 1999 to 2005. A total of 333 free-roaming dogs and 1637 free-roaming cats were presented to the shelter in 2000, compared with 154 dogs and 1298 cats in 2005. A clear seasonal pattern was evident for cat submissions with large numbers presented to the shelter from October to May in any given year with a peak in December and January. A subset of the Wellington SPCA catchment area was defined and kernel smoothing techniques used to plot the spatial distribution of the residence of members of the public who submitted animals to the shelter throughout the study period. We found a positive relationship between the number of households submitting animals to the shelter and mesh block level deprivation index. Leslie projection matrices were used to quantify the intrinsic rate of growth of the free-roaming dog and cat population. The intrinsic rate of population growth was 0.78 (95% CI 0.56 – 0.94) for dogs and 0.98 (95% CI 0.76 – 1.16) for cats. Assuming the intensity of recruitment of animals to the shelter was constant throughout the study period these findings indicate negative growth in the free-roaming dog population and little or no growth in the free-roaming cat population. Elasticity analyses allowed us to distinguish those factors that were most influential in determining population growth. The intrinsic rate of population growth was sensitive to changes in the submission and fecundity rates of younger animals (those less than 2 years of age) with each measure being approximately equally influential in terms of the overall effect on population growth. The studies presented in this dissertation demonstrate that submission of younger animals to the shelter (with subsequent re-homing) and/or submission and desexing (with subsequent release) are equally effective techniques for limiting the growth of the freeroaming dog and cat population in theWellington region. Areas defined as socio-economically deprived should be targeted for intervention. June to September would be an appropriate time of the year to intensify control efforts, particularly for cats

Improving grade five students' recreational reading habits: An action research

&lt;p&gt;Reading is vital for learning. It makes a reader more empathetic, knowledgeable, and creative and stimulates imagination. It also helps in boosting communication, improving vocabulary and helps to discover the world. Given this context, the present study seeks to improve grade five students&rsquo; recreational reading habits through measures such as uninterrupted sustained silent reading, creating reading corner and providing reading incentives. Grounded on the pragmatism paradigm, the study employs convergent parallel design. The quantitative and qualitative data were collected through survey of 25 students and six students, respectively. The quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The qualitative data from interview were used to support the findings of quantitative data. The result of the current study revealed that intervention measures employed for this study are effective in enhancing grade five students&rsquo; attitude towards reading. The recreational reading habits also improved after implementing the intervention measures. In addition, it was also found that reading incentives motivates students the most followed by uninterrupted sustained silent reading. Therefore, teachers and parents need to encourage students to read by creating reading platform and providing incentives for the students to enhance their recreational reading habits.&lt;/p&gt

Seroprevalence and risk factors of canine distemper virus in the pet and stray dogs in Haa, western Bhutan

Background: Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) is a highly contagious virus belonging to family Paramyxovirade, genus Morbillivirus and responsible for high morbidity and mortality in dogs worldwide. Infected domestic dogs can cause spillover infections to wild carnivores that are in contact. We conducted a seroprevalence survey of CDV in domestic dogs in two areas of western Bhutan (Haa district) located at the periphery of the Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve, which is home to several endangered wildlife. A total of 238 serum samples, 119 each from the pet and stray dog, were collected during summer and winter seasons. Samples were tested for CDV antibodies using a sandwich enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA) test. Results: The seroprevalence of CDV was found to be 11.3% (95% CI 6.7-14.2). Dogs sampled during winter were less likely to test seropositive against CDV antibodies than those sampled during summer (adjusted odds ratio:-2.6; 95% CI: − 1.2-6.1). Dogs in good body condition were found to be more likely to test seropositive against CDV than dogs in poor condition and obese dogs (adjusted odds ratio: 2.2; 95% CI: 0.1-5.9). There were no significant differences in the seroprevalence of CDV among different sexes, breeds and age classes, pet and stray dogs and between the two study sites. Conclusions: Our study indicates that CDV seroprevalence was equally distributed among pet and stray dogs. We suggest strengthening the management practices of dogs through responsible dog ownership, dog population management and waste management to minimize the transmission risk of infectious diseases to wildlife

Comparison of mark-resight methods to estimate abundance and rabies vaccination coverage of free-roaming dogs in two urban areas of south Bhutan

In Bhutan, Capture-Neuter-Vaccinate-Release (CNVR) programs have been implemented to manage the dog population and control rabies, but no detailed evaluation has been done to assess their coverage and impact. We compared estimates of the dog population using three analytical methods: Lincoln-Petersen index, the Chapman estimate, and the logit-normal mixed effects model, and a varying number of count periods at different times of the day to recommend a protocol for applying the mark-resight framework to estimate free-roaming dog population abundance. We assessed the coverage of the CNVR program by estimating the proportion of dogs that were ear-notched and visually scored the health and skin condition of free-roaming dogs in Gelephu and Phuentsholing towns in south Bhutan, bordering India, in September–October 2012. The estimated free-roaming dog population in Gelephu using the Lincoln-Petersen index and Chapman estimates ranged from 612 to 672 and 614 to 671, respectively, while the logit-normal mixed effects model estimate based on the combined two count events was 641 (95% CI: 603-682). In Phuentsholing the Lincoln-Petersen index and Chapman estimates ranged from 525 to 583 and 524 to 582, respectively, while the logit-normal mixed effects model estimate based on the combined four count events was 555 (95% CI: 526-587). The total number of dogs counted was significantly associated with the time of day (AM versus PM; P = 0.007), with a 17% improvement in dog sightings during the morning counting events. We recommend to conduct a morning marking followed by one count event the next morning and estimate population size by applying the Lincoln-Peterson corrected Chapman method or conduct two morning count events and apply the logit-normal mixed model to estimate population size. The estimated proportion of vaccinated free-roaming dogs was 56% (95% CI: 52–61%) and 58% (95% CI: 53–62%) in Gelephu and Phuentsholing, respectively. Given coverage in many neighbourhoods was below the recommended threshold of 70%, we recommend conducting an annual “mass dog vaccination only” campaign in southern Bhutan to create an immune buffer in this high rabies-risk area. The male-to-female dog ratio was 1.34:1 in Gelephu and 1.27:1 in Pheuntsholing. Population size estimates using mark-resight surveys has provided useful baseline data for understanding the population dynamics of dogs at the study sites. Mark–resight surveys provide useful information for designing and managing the logistics of dog vaccination or CNVR programs, assessing vaccination coverage, and for evaluating the impact of neutering programs on the size and structure of dog populations over time

Cerebral cysticercosis in a wild Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in Bhutan: a first report in non-domestic felids

The endangered Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is a keystone species playing an essential role in ecology as well as in the social and spiritual lives of the Himalayan people. The latest estimate of the Bengal tiger population in Bhutan accounts for 103 individuals. Infectious organisms, including zoonotic parasites causing high burden in human health, have received little attention as a cause of mortality in tigers. Taeniosis/cysticercosis, caused by the cestode Taenia solium, is considered one of the major neglected tropical diseases in Southeast Asia. We present here a case of neurocysticercosis in a Bengal tiger showing advanced neurological disease outside Thimphu, the capital city of Bhutan. After palliative care, the animal died, and necropsy revealed multiple small cysts in the brain. Here we show the presence of two genetic variants of T. solium in the parasite material collected based on PCR and sequencing of the complete cox1 and cytB genes. The sequences form a discrete branch within the Asia plus Madagascar cluster of the parasite. On other hand, tests for feline morbillivirus, feline calicivirus, canine distemper virus, Nipah, rabies, Japanese encephalitis, feline leukaemia and feline immunodeficiency virus were negative. In contrast, PCR for feline herpesvirus was positive and a latex agglutination test revealed an elevated antibody titer against Toxoplasma gondii (titer 1:256). The molecular examination of taeniid eggs isolated from the tiger faeces produced sequences for which the highest homology in GenBank is between 92% and 94% with T. regis and T. hydatigena. This fatal case of T. solium neurocysticercosis, a disease previously unrecorded in tigers or other non-domestic felids, demonstrates an anthropogenically driven transmission of a deadly pathogen which could become a serious threat to the tiger population