Jupiter as a Giant Cosmic Ray Detector

We explore the feasibility of using the atmosphere of Jupiter to detect Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECR's). The large surface area of Jupiter allows us to probe cosmic rays of higher energies than previously accessible. Cosmic ray extensive air showers in Jupiter's atmosphere could in principle be detected by the Large Area Telescope (LAT) on the Fermi observatory. In order to be observed, these air showers would need to be oriented toward the Earth, and would need to occur sufficiently high in the atmosphere that the gamma rays can penetrate. We demonstrate that, under these assumptions, Jupiter provides an effective cosmic ray "detector" area of $3.3 \times 10^7$ km$^2$. We predict that Fermi-LAT should be able to detect events of energy $>10^{21}$ eV with fluence $10^{-7}$ erg cm$^{-2}$ at a rate of about one per month. The observed number of air showers may provide an indirect measure of the flux of cosmic rays $\gtrsim 10^{20}$ eV. Extensive air showers also produce a synchrotron signature that may be measurable by ALMA. Simultaneous observations of Jupiter with ALMA and Fermi-LAT could be used to provide broad constraints on the energies of the initiating cosmic rays.Comment: 8 pages, 5 figures. Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Letter

Nitrogen Oxide Concentrations in Natural Waters on Early Earth

A key challenge in origins-of-life studies is estimating the abundances of species relevant to the chemical pathways proposed to have contributed to the emergence of life on early Earth. Dissolved nitrogen oxide anions (NO$_{X}^{-}$), in particular nitrate (NO$_{3}^{-}$) and nitrite (NO$_{2}^{-}$), have been invoked in diverse origins-of-life chemistry, from the oligomerization of RNA to the emergence of protometabolism. Recent work has calculated the supply of NO$_{X}^{-}$ from the prebiotic atmosphere to the ocean, and reported steady-state [NO$_{X}^{-}$] to be high across all plausible parameter space. These findings rest on the assumption that NO$_{X}^{-}$ is stable in natural waters unless processed at a hydrothermal vent. Here, we show that NO$_{X}^{-}$ is unstable in the reducing environment of early Earth. Sinks due to UV photolysis and reactions with reduced iron (Fe$^{2+}$) suppress [NO$_{X}^{-}$] by several orders of magnitude relative to past predictions. For pH$=6.5-8$ and $T=0-50^\circ$C, we find that it is most probable that NO$_{X}^{-}$]$<1~\mu$M in the prebiotic ocean. On the other hand, prebiotic ponds with favorable drainage characteristics may have sustained [NO$_{X}^{-}$]$\geq 1~\mu$M. As on modern Earth, most NO$_{X}^{-}$ on prebiotic Earth should have been present as NO$_{3}^{-}$, due to its much greater stability. These findings inform the kind of prebiotic chemistries that would have been possible on early Earth. We discuss the implications for proposed prebiotic chemistries, and highlight the need for further studies of NO$_{X}^{-}$ kinetics to reduce the considerable uncertainties in predicting [NO$_{X}^{-}$] on early Earth.Comment: In review for publication at Geochemistry, Geophysics, and Geosystems (G-cubed). Comments, questions, and criticism solicited; please contact corresponding author at [email protected]. SI at: https://web-cert.mit.edu/sukrit/Public/nox_si.pdf. GitHub at: https://github.com/sukritranjan/no

Cobb-Douglas Utility - Eventually!

Consider the following two opinions, both of which can be found in the literature of consumer demand systems: (a) As the real income of a consumer becomes indefinitely large, re-mixing the consumption bundle becomes irrelevant: having chosen the ultimately satisfying budget shares at any given set of relative prices, the superlatively wealthy continue to allocate additional income in the same proportions. With very large and increasing per capita income, ultimately the utility function becomes indistinguishable from Cobb-Douglas. (b) Consumer demand systems in which the income elasticities monotonically approach one (from above, in the case of luxuries; from below, in the case of necessities) are unsatisfactory both theoretically and empirically. For instance, a necessity with a low (consumer demand system; applied general equilibrium; separability; implicitly directly additive preferences; effectively global regularity; Cobb-Douglas, calibration; AIDADS.

Ionisation and discharge in cloud-forming atmospheres of brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets

Brown dwarfs and giant gas extrasolar planets have cold atmospheres with rich chemical compositions from which mineral cloud particles form. Their properties, like particle sizes and material composition, vary with height, and the mineral cloud particles are charged due to triboelectric processes in such dynamic atmospheres. The dynamics of the atmospheric gas is driven by the irradiating host star and/or by the rotation of the objects that changes during its lifetime. Thermal gas ionisation in these ultra-cool but dense atmospheres allows electrostatic interactions and magnetic coupling of a substantial atmosphere volume. Combined with a strong magnetic field , a chromosphere and aurorae might form as suggested by radio and x-ray observations of brown dwarfs. Non-equilibrium processes like cosmic ray ionisation and discharge processes in clouds will increase the local pool of free electrons in the gas. Cosmic rays and lighting discharges also alter the composition of the local atmospheric gas such that tracer molecules might be identified. Cosmic rays affect the atmosphere through air showers in a certain volume which was modelled with a 3D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code to be able to visualise their spacial extent. Given a certain degree of thermal ionisation of the atmospheric gas, we suggest that electron attachment to charge mineral cloud particles is too inefficient to cause an electrostatic disruption of the cloud particles. Cloud particles will therefore not be destroyed by Coulomb explosion for the local temperature in the collisional dominated brown dwarf and giant gas planet atmospheres. However, the cloud particles are destroyed electrostatically in regions with strong gas ionisation. The potential size of such cloud holes would, however, be too small and might occur too far inside the cloud to mimic the effect of, e.g. magnetic field induced star spots

Etiological Histories of 35 Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Residential School Students with Delinquent Behavior

This paper reviews the etiological histories of deaf and hard-of-hearing juveniles with delinquent behaviors. The etiologies of hearing loss and incidence of secondary or multiple disabilities in students with delinquent behaviors is examined through a review of existing school records for thirty- five (35) students born between the years of 1939-1986. Case studies, percentages, IQ scores, and reading grade level scores are used to provide a description of the neurological and behavioral issues of deaf and hard-of- hearing residential school youth who have experienced criminal legal problems. The purpose is to improve awareness among educators and juvenile Justice professionals of some potential effects of multiple disabilities on delinquency in signing deaf and hard of-hearing youth