17 research outputs found

    Time-Restricted Feeding during Puberty Ameliorates Adiposity and Prevents Hepatic Steatosis in a Mouse Model of Childhood Obesity

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    : Background: Time restricted feeding (TRF) refers to dietary interventions in which food access is limited during a specific timeframe of the day. TRFs have proven useful in improving metabolic health in adult subjects with obesity. Their beneficial effects are mediated, in part, through modulating the circadian rhythm. Nevertheless, the translation of these dietary interventions onto obese/overweight children and adolescents remains uncharacterized. The objective of this study is to explore the feasibility of temporal dietary interventions for improving metabolic health in the context of childhood obesity. Methods: We have previously developed a mouse model of early adiposity (i.e., childhood obesity) through litter size reduction. Mice raised in small litters (SL) became obese as early as by two weeks of age, and as adults, they developed several obesity-related co-morbidities, including insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and hepatic steatosis. Here, we explored whether two independent short-term chrono-nutritional interventions might improve metabolic health in 1-month-old pre-pubertal SL mice. Both TRFs comprised 8 h feeding/14 h fasting. In the first one (TRF1) Control and SL mice had access to the diet for 8 h during the dark phase. In the second intervention (TRF2) food was available during the light:dark transitions. Results: TRF1 did not alter food intake nor ameliorate adiposity in SL-TRF1. In contrast, SL-TRF2 mice showed unintentional reduction of caloric intake, which was accompanied by reduced total body weight and adiposity. Strikingly, hepatic triglyceride content was completely normalized in SL-TRF1 and SL-TRF2 mice, when compared to the ad lib-fed SL mice. These effects were partially mediated by (i) clock-dependent signals, which might modulate the expression of Pparg or Cpt1a, and (ii) clockindependent signals, such as fasting itself, which could influence Fasn expression. Conclusions: Time-restricted feeding is an effective and feasible nutritional intervention to improve metabolic health, namely hepatic steatosis, in a model of childhood obesity. These data open new avenues for future safe and efficient chrono-nutritional interventions aimed to improve metabolic health in children with overweight/obesity

    FGF21 mediates the lipid metabolism response to amino acid starvation

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    Abstract Lipogenic gene expression in liver is repressed in mice upon leucine deprivation. The hormone fi broblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), which is critical to the adaptive metabolic response to starvation, is also induced under amino acid deprivation. Upon leucine deprivation, we found that FGF21 is needed to repress expression of lipogenic genes in liver and white adipose tissue, and stimulate phosphorylation of hormone-sensitive lipase in white adipose tissue. The increased expression of Ucp1 in brown adipose tissue under these circumstances is also impaired in FGF21- defi cient mice. Our results demonstrate the important role of FGF21 in the regulation of lipid metabolism during amino acid starvation. 驴De Sousa-Coelho, A. L., J. Relat, E. Hondares, A. P茅rez-Mart铆, F. Ribas, F. Villarroya, P. F. Marrero, and D. Haro. FGF21 mediates the lipid metabolism response to amino acid starvation

    Neonatal overfeeding during lactation rapidly and permanently misaligns the hepatic circadian rhythm and programmes adult NAFLD

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    Childhood obesity is a strong risk factor for adult obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. The mechanisms that link early adiposity with late-onset chronic diseases are poorly characterised. We developed a mouse model of early adiposity through litter size reduction. Mice reared in small litters (SLs) developed obesity, insulin resistance, and hepatic steatosis during adulthood. The liver played a major role in the development of the disease. Objective: To gain insight into the molecular mechanisms that link early development and childhood obesity with adult hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance. Methods: We analysed the hepatic transcriptome (Affymetrix) of control and SL mice to uncover potential pathways involved in the long-term programming of disease in our model. Results: The circadian rhythm was the most significantly deregulated Gene Ontology term in the liver of adult SL mice. Several core clock genes, such as period 1e3 and cryptochrome 1e2, were altered in two-week-old SL mice and remained altered throughout their life course until they reached 4e6 months of age. Defective circadian rhythm was restricted to the periphery since the expression of clock genes in the hypothalamus, the central pacemaker, was normal. The period-cryptochrome genes were primarily entrained by dietary signals. Hence, restricting food availability during the light cycle only uncoupled the central rhythm from the peripheral and completely normalised hepatic triglyceride content in adult SL mice. This effect was accompanied by better re-alignment of the hepatic period genes, suggesting that they might have played a causal role in mediating hepatic steatosis in the adult SL mice. Functional downregulation of Per2 in hepatocytes in vitro confirmed that the period genes regulated lipid-related genes in part through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (Ppara). Conclusions: The hepatic circadian rhythm matures during early development, from birth to postnatal day 30. Hence, nutritional challenges during early life may misalign the hepatic circadian rhythm and secondarily lead to metabolic derangements. Specific time-restricted feeding interventions improve metabolic health in the context of childhood obesity by partially re-aligning the peripheral circadian rhythm

    Dietary betaine supplementation increases Fgf21 levels to improve glucose homeostasis and reduce hepatic lipid accumulation in mice

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    Identifying markers of human insulin resistance may permit development of new approaches for treatment and prevention of type 2 diabetes. To this end, we analyzed the fasting plasma metabolome in metabolically characterized human volunteers across a spectrum of insulin resistance. We demonstrate that plasma betaine levels are reduced in insulin-resistant humans and correlate closely with insulin sensitivity. Moreover, betaine administration to mice with diet-induced obesity prevents the development of impaired glucose homeostasis, reduces hepatic lipid accumulation, increases white adipose oxidative capacity, and enhances whole-body energy expenditure. In parallel with these beneficial metabolic effects, betaine supplementation robustly increased hepatic and circulating fibroblast growth factor (Fgf)21 levels. Betaine administration failed to improve glucose homeostasis and liver fat content in Fgf21(-/-) mice, demonstrating that Fgf21 is necessary for betaine's beneficial effects. Together, these data indicate that dietary betaine increases Fgf21 levels to improve metabolic health in mice and suggest that betaine supplementation merits further investigation as a supplement for treatment or prevention of type 2 diabetes in humans

    Regulaci贸 de FGF21 en la c猫l路lula muscular

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    [cat] Tot i que el fetge 茅s considerat com el principal lloc de producci贸 del FGF21 sist猫mic, sobretot en condicions de dejuni i sota control de PPAR伪, darrerament s鈥檋an acumulat diverses evid猫ncies que indiquen que FGF21 tamb茅 pot actuar com a mioquina, un factor hormonal que pot ser produ茂t i alliberat a la circulaci贸 pel m煤scul esquel猫tic. Concretament, s鈥檋a observat que pacients que pateixen malalties neuromusculars causades per alteracions en la funci贸 mitocondrial, com ara mutacions i deplecions al DNA mitocondrial, presenten valors d鈥檈xpressi贸 d鈥橣GF21 incrementats, aix铆 com tamb茅 els de la seva secreci贸 a la circulaci贸. Per tant, alguns indicis mostren que el m煤scul pot ser un lloc de producci贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 associat a l鈥檈str猫s mitocondrial muscular. Durant la realitzaci贸 d鈥檃questa tesi, hem trobat que l鈥檈xpressi贸 i la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 en un context de c猫l鈥ula muscular estan 铆ntimament associades amb la diferenciaci贸 miog猫nica tant en rosegadors com en models humans. Per contra, els nivells dels seus receptors es mantenen bastant estables, mentre que pel que fa al cofactor 尾-Klotho, necessari pel seu proc茅s de senyalitzaci贸, no es detecta expressi贸 del transcrit. Aquest fet suggereix, que la c猫l鈥ula muscular podria ser una font d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21, per貌 no un teixit diana d鈥檃questa. A part, s鈥檋a identificat el factor miog猫nic MyoD com a un regulador molt potent de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21, aix铆 com tamb茅 se n鈥檋a mapat la regi贸 del promotor responsable de vehicular aquest efecte. D鈥檃ltra banda, s鈥檋an intentat descriure altres factors de transcripci贸 i coreguladors que poden actuar com a activadors o inhibidors, els quals poden estar involucrats en el control de la transcripci贸 g猫nica d鈥橣GF21, com ara els PPARs, PGC-1伪 o Sirt1, aix铆 com tamb茅 esbrinar els efectes de diversos activadors naturals i sint猫tics. En aquest sentit, val la pena destacar que dins d鈥檜n context en pres猫ncia del factor miog猫nic MyoD s鈥檋a identificat a PPAR伪, juntament amb el seu activador, com a un clar activador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional d鈥檃quest promotor. PGC-1伪, sembla actuar de la mateixa manera, potenciant-ne l鈥檈fecte en pres猫ncia de MyoD. Per contra, Sirt1 s鈥檋a revelat com a un inactivador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional del gen FGF21 en pres猫ncia del factor MyoD. Altres experiments indiquen que el tractament amb diferents 脿cids grassos no sorgeixen cap efecte sobre l鈥檈xpressi贸 ni la secreci贸 del gen en el context muscular, sin贸 m茅s aviat el contrari, malgrat que la c猫l鈥ula muscular es mostrava sensible a l鈥檃cci贸 dels 脿cids grassos sobre altres gens. De la mateixa manera que ja indicaven determinats indicis bibliogr脿fics, vam poder comprovar que pacients de patologia MNGIE (miopatia associada a alteracions del DNA mitocondrial), mostraven la pres猫ncia d鈥檃lts nivells d鈥橣GF21 circulants. Aix铆 doncs, intentant mimetitzar una disfunci贸 mitocondrial experimentalment, utilitzant inhibidors de la cadena respirat貌ria/fosforilaci贸 oxidativa, es van poder confirmar aquests increments d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars. Investigant una mica m茅s a fons la mecan铆stica de tot el proc茅s, es va veure que l鈥檌ncrement de la producci贸 d鈥檈sp猫cies reactives d鈥檕xigen derivades d鈥檃questa disfunci贸, provocava una inducci贸 de la p38-MAP cinasa i conseq眉entment l鈥檃ctivaci贸 ATF2, el qual 茅s capa莽 d鈥檌nteraccionar amb el seu lloc d鈥檜ni贸 en la regi贸 proximal del promotor del gen FGF21, provocant aix铆 aquest efecte sobre el gen FGF21 a les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques. Alhora, s鈥檋a descrit que la pres猫ncia de MyoD 茅s imprescindible per tal que es doni la resposta de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21 a la disfunci贸 mitocondrial indu茂da experimentalment, justificant la resposta d鈥檌ncrement de la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars en resposta a aquesta disfunci贸. Aquests canvis en la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques en resposta a les afectacions a nivell mitocondrial, tamb茅 poden ser un reflex del mecanisme fisiol貌gic pel qual es detecten canvis a nivell d鈥檈status energ猫tic a nivell muscular. D鈥檃questa manera, un increment de l鈥檃lliberaci贸 d鈥橣GF21 podria desencadenar diferents respostes metab貌liques adaptatives a nivell sist猫mic. Aquest proc茅s posa de manifest la gran capacitat que t茅 la funci贸 mitocondrial, per tal d鈥檌nfluenciar en el metabolisme sist猫mic a trav茅s de la senyalitzaci贸 mitocondrial retr貌grada. Aix铆 doncs, aquest mecanisme de senyalitzaci贸 permet l鈥檈xpressi贸 i alliberaci贸 de mol猫cules d鈥檃cci贸 endocrina com ara FGF21 i refor莽a la idea de considerar el m煤scul esquel猫tic com a una important font d鈥橣GF21, la qual podem considerar com a una mioquina.[eng] Although the liver is generally considered the main production site for fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), high FGF21 levels have been found to be associated with neuromuscular mitochondrial genetic diseases, and there are indications that shows muscle as a source of FGF21 production under conditions of muscular mitochondrial stress. In this thesis we describe that FGF21 expression and release is associated with myogenic differentiation in different muscular cell lines. However, FGFRs transcription levels don鈥檛 change across differentiation and 尾-Klotho is undetectable, suggesting that muscle cells as a source but not as a target of FGF21. Furthermore we have identified MyoD as a major controller of FGF21 gene transcription, as well as we have mapped the most important region in the promoter responsible for MyoD-dependent regulation. Moreover, we determined the role of some transcription factors and co-regulators potentially involved in the control of FGF21 gene transcription, such as PPARs, PGC-1伪 or Sirt1, as well as several natural and synthetic agents (e.g. fatty acids) On the other hand, mimicking mitochondrial dysfunction by the use of respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors resulted in enhanced expression and release of FGF21 by muscle cells. Increased production of reactive oxygen species, subsequent induction of p38-MAP kinase and activation of an ATF2-binding site at the proximal promoter region of the FGF21 gene were found to comprise the major mechanism connecting mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced FGF21 gene transcription in myogenic cells. Furthermore, we show that MyoD is required for the responsiveness of FGF21 gene transcription to experimentally induced mitochondrial dysfunction, which explains the preferential response of muscle cells to enhanced FGF21 secretion in response to mitochondrial alterations. FGF21 release by muscle cells in response to mitochondrial alterations may reflect a physiological mechanism by which the sensing of internal energetic status by muscle tissue results in the release of FGF21 to favor systemic metabolic adaptations. This process highlights the capacity of mitochondrial function to influence systemic metabolism by retrograde signaling, which leads to the expression and release of molecules with endocrine action, such as FGF2,1 and reinforces the concept of considering the skeletal muscle as an important source of the FGF21, as well as to consider FGF21 as a myokine

    Regulaci贸 de FGF21 en la c猫l路lula muscular

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    [cat] Tot i que el fetge 茅s considerat com el principal lloc de producci贸 del FGF21 sist猫mic, sobretot en condicions de dejuni i sota control de PPAR伪, darrerament s鈥檋an acumulat diverses evid猫ncies que indiquen que FGF21 tamb茅 pot actuar com a mioquina, un factor hormonal que pot ser produ茂t i alliberat a la circulaci贸 pel m煤scul esquel猫tic. Concretament, s鈥檋a observat que pacients que pateixen malalties neuromusculars causades per alteracions en la funci贸 mitocondrial, com ara mutacions i deplecions al DNA mitocondrial, presenten valors d鈥檈xpressi贸 d鈥橣GF21 incrementats, aix铆 com tamb茅 els de la seva secreci贸 a la circulaci贸. Per tant, alguns indicis mostren que el m煤scul pot ser un lloc de producci贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 associat a l鈥檈str猫s mitocondrial muscular. Durant la realitzaci贸 d鈥檃questa tesi, hem trobat que l鈥檈xpressi贸 i la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 en un context de c猫l鈥ula muscular estan 铆ntimament associades amb la diferenciaci贸 miog猫nica tant en rosegadors com en models humans. Per contra, els nivells dels seus receptors es mantenen bastant estables, mentre que pel que fa al cofactor 尾-Klotho, necessari pel seu proc茅s de senyalitzaci贸, no es detecta expressi贸 del transcrit. Aquest fet suggereix, que la c猫l鈥ula muscular podria ser una font d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21, per貌 no un teixit diana d鈥檃questa. A part, s鈥檋a identificat el factor miog猫nic MyoD com a un regulador molt potent de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21, aix铆 com tamb茅 se n鈥檋a mapat la regi贸 del promotor responsable de vehicular aquest efecte. D鈥檃ltra banda, s鈥檋an intentat descriure altres factors de transcripci贸 i coreguladors que poden actuar com a activadors o inhibidors, els quals poden estar involucrats en el control de la transcripci贸 g猫nica d鈥橣GF21, com ara els PPARs, PGC-1伪 o Sirt1, aix铆 com tamb茅 esbrinar els efectes de diversos activadors naturals i sint猫tics. En aquest sentit, val la pena destacar que dins d鈥檜n context en pres猫ncia del factor miog猫nic MyoD s鈥檋a identificat a PPAR伪, juntament amb el seu activador, com a un clar activador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional d鈥檃quest promotor. PGC-1伪, sembla actuar de la mateixa manera, potenciant-ne l鈥檈fecte en pres猫ncia de MyoD. Per contra, Sirt1 s鈥檋a revelat com a un inactivador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional del gen FGF21 en pres猫ncia del factor MyoD. Altres experiments indiquen que el tractament amb diferents 脿cids grassos no sorgeixen cap efecte sobre l鈥檈xpressi贸 ni la secreci贸 del gen en el context muscular, sin贸 m茅s aviat el contrari, malgrat que la c猫l鈥ula muscular es mostrava sensible a l鈥檃cci贸 dels 脿cids grassos sobre altres gens. De la mateixa manera que ja indicaven determinats indicis bibliogr脿fics, vam poder comprovar que pacients de patologia MNGIE (miopatia associada a alteracions del DNA mitocondrial), mostraven la pres猫ncia d鈥檃lts nivells d鈥橣GF21 circulants. Aix铆 doncs, intentant mimetitzar una disfunci贸 mitocondrial experimentalment, utilitzant inhibidors de la cadena respirat貌ria/fosforilaci贸 oxidativa, es van poder confirmar aquests increments d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars. Investigant una mica m茅s a fons la mecan铆stica de tot el proc茅s, es va veure que l鈥檌ncrement de la producci贸 d鈥檈sp猫cies reactives d鈥檕xigen derivades d鈥檃questa disfunci贸, provocava una inducci贸 de la p38-MAP cinasa i conseq眉entment l鈥檃ctivaci贸 ATF2, el qual 茅s capa莽 d鈥檌nteraccionar amb el seu lloc d鈥檜ni贸 en la regi贸 proximal del promotor del gen FGF21, provocant aix铆 aquest efecte sobre el gen FGF21 a les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques. Alhora, s鈥檋a descrit que la pres猫ncia de MyoD 茅s imprescindible per tal que es doni la resposta de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21 a la disfunci贸 mitocondrial indu茂da experimentalment, justificant la resposta d鈥檌ncrement de la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars en resposta a aquesta disfunci贸. Aquests canvis en la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques en resposta a les afectacions a nivell mitocondrial, tamb茅 poden ser un reflex del mecanisme fisiol貌gic pel qual es detecten canvis a nivell d鈥檈status energ猫tic a nivell muscular. D鈥檃questa manera, un increment de l鈥檃lliberaci贸 d鈥橣GF21 podria desencadenar diferents respostes metab貌liques adaptatives a nivell sist猫mic. Aquest proc茅s posa de manifest la gran capacitat que t茅 la funci贸 mitocondrial, per tal d鈥檌nfluenciar en el metabolisme sist猫mic a trav茅s de la senyalitzaci贸 mitocondrial retr貌grada. Aix铆 doncs, aquest mecanisme de senyalitzaci贸 permet l鈥檈xpressi贸 i alliberaci贸 de mol猫cules d鈥檃cci贸 endocrina com ara FGF21 i refor莽a la idea de considerar el m煤scul esquel猫tic com a una important font d鈥橣GF21, la qual podem considerar com a una mioquina.[eng] Although the liver is generally considered the main production site for fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), high FGF21 levels have been found to be associated with neuromuscular mitochondrial genetic diseases, and there are indications that shows muscle as a source of FGF21 production under conditions of muscular mitochondrial stress. In this thesis we describe that FGF21 expression and release is associated with myogenic differentiation in different muscular cell lines. However, FGFRs transcription levels don鈥檛 change across differentiation and 尾-Klotho is undetectable, suggesting that muscle cells as a source but not as a target of FGF21. Furthermore we have identified MyoD as a major controller of FGF21 gene transcription, as well as we have mapped the most important region in the promoter responsible for MyoD-dependent regulation. Moreover, we determined the role of some transcription factors and co-regulators potentially involved in the control of FGF21 gene transcription, such as PPARs, PGC-1伪 or Sirt1, as well as several natural and synthetic agents (e.g. fatty acids) On the other hand, mimicking mitochondrial dysfunction by the use of respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors resulted in enhanced expression and release of FGF21 by muscle cells. Increased production of reactive oxygen species, subsequent induction of p38-MAP kinase and activation of an ATF2-binding site at the proximal promoter region of the FGF21 gene were found to comprise the major mechanism connecting mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced FGF21 gene transcription in myogenic cells. Furthermore, we show that MyoD is required for the responsiveness of FGF21 gene transcription to experimentally induced mitochondrial dysfunction, which explains the preferential response of muscle cells to enhanced FGF21 secretion in response to mitochondrial alterations. FGF21 release by muscle cells in response to mitochondrial alterations may reflect a physiological mechanism by which the sensing of internal energetic status by muscle tissue results in the release of FGF21 to favor systemic metabolic adaptations. This process highlights the capacity of mitochondrial function to influence systemic metabolism by retrograde signaling, which leads to the expression and release of molecules with endocrine action, such as FGF2,1 and reinforces the concept of considering the skeletal muscle as an important source of the FGF21, as well as to consider FGF21 as a myokine

    Regulaci贸 de FGF21 en la c猫l路lula muscular

    Get PDF
    [cat] Tot i que el fetge 茅s considerat com el principal lloc de producci贸 del FGF21 sist猫mic, sobretot en condicions de dejuni i sota control de PPAR伪, darrerament s鈥檋an acumulat diverses evid猫ncies que indiquen que FGF21 tamb茅 pot actuar com a mioquina, un factor hormonal que pot ser produ茂t i alliberat a la circulaci贸 pel m煤scul esquel猫tic. Concretament, s鈥檋a observat que pacients que pateixen malalties neuromusculars causades per alteracions en la funci贸 mitocondrial, com ara mutacions i deplecions al DNA mitocondrial, presenten valors d鈥檈xpressi贸 d鈥橣GF21 incrementats, aix铆 com tamb茅 els de la seva secreci贸 a la circulaci贸. Per tant, alguns indicis mostren que el m煤scul pot ser un lloc de producci贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 associat a l鈥檈str猫s mitocondrial muscular. Durant la realitzaci贸 d鈥檃questa tesi, hem trobat que l鈥檈xpressi贸 i la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 en un context de c猫l鈥ula muscular estan 铆ntimament associades amb la diferenciaci贸 miog猫nica tant en rosegadors com en models humans. Per contra, els nivells dels seus receptors es mantenen bastant estables, mentre que pel que fa al cofactor 尾-Klotho, necessari pel seu proc茅s de senyalitzaci贸, no es detecta expressi贸 del transcrit. Aquest fet suggereix, que la c猫l鈥ula muscular podria ser una font d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21, per貌 no un teixit diana d鈥檃questa. A part, s鈥檋a identificat el factor miog猫nic MyoD com a un regulador molt potent de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21, aix铆 com tamb茅 se n鈥檋a mapat la regi贸 del promotor responsable de vehicular aquest efecte. D鈥檃ltra banda, s鈥檋an intentat descriure altres factors de transcripci贸 i coreguladors que poden actuar com a activadors o inhibidors, els quals poden estar involucrats en el control de la transcripci贸 g猫nica d鈥橣GF21, com ara els PPARs, PGC-1伪 o Sirt1, aix铆 com tamb茅 esbrinar els efectes de diversos activadors naturals i sint猫tics. En aquest sentit, val la pena destacar que dins d鈥檜n context en pres猫ncia del factor miog猫nic MyoD s鈥檋a identificat a PPAR伪, juntament amb el seu activador, com a un clar activador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional d鈥檃quest promotor. PGC-1伪, sembla actuar de la mateixa manera, potenciant-ne l鈥檈fecte en pres猫ncia de MyoD. Per contra, Sirt1 s鈥檋a revelat com a un inactivador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional del gen FGF21 en pres猫ncia del factor MyoD. Altres experiments indiquen que el tractament amb diferents 脿cids grassos no sorgeixen cap efecte sobre l鈥檈xpressi贸 ni la secreci贸 del gen en el context muscular, sin贸 m茅s aviat el contrari, malgrat que la c猫l鈥ula muscular es mostrava sensible a l鈥檃cci贸 dels 脿cids grassos sobre altres gens. De la mateixa manera que ja indicaven determinats indicis bibliogr脿fics, vam poder comprovar que pacients de patologia MNGIE (miopatia associada a alteracions del DNA mitocondrial), mostraven la pres猫ncia d鈥檃lts nivells d鈥橣GF21 circulants. Aix铆 doncs, intentant mimetitzar una disfunci贸 mitocondrial experimentalment, utilitzant inhibidors de la cadena respirat貌ria/fosforilaci贸 oxidativa, es van poder confirmar aquests increments d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars. Investigant una mica m茅s a fons la mecan铆stica de tot el proc茅s, es va veure que l鈥檌ncrement de la producci贸 d鈥檈sp猫cies reactives d鈥檕xigen derivades d鈥檃questa disfunci贸, provocava una inducci贸 de la p38-MAP cinasa i conseq眉entment l鈥檃ctivaci贸 ATF2, el qual 茅s capa莽 d鈥檌nteraccionar amb el seu lloc d鈥檜ni贸 en la regi贸 proximal del promotor del gen FGF21, provocant aix铆 aquest efecte sobre el gen FGF21 a les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques. Alhora, s鈥檋a descrit que la pres猫ncia de MyoD 茅s imprescindible per tal que es doni la resposta de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21 a la disfunci贸 mitocondrial indu茂da experimentalment, justificant la resposta d鈥檌ncrement de la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars en resposta a aquesta disfunci贸. Aquests canvis en la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques en resposta a les afectacions a nivell mitocondrial, tamb茅 poden ser un reflex del mecanisme fisiol貌gic pel qual es detecten canvis a nivell d鈥檈status energ猫tic a nivell muscular. D鈥檃questa manera, un increment de l鈥檃lliberaci贸 d鈥橣GF21 podria desencadenar diferents respostes metab貌liques adaptatives a nivell sist猫mic. Aquest proc茅s posa de manifest la gran capacitat que t茅 la funci贸 mitocondrial, per tal d鈥檌nfluenciar en el metabolisme sist猫mic a trav茅s de la senyalitzaci贸 mitocondrial retr貌grada. Aix铆 doncs, aquest mecanisme de senyalitzaci贸 permet l鈥檈xpressi贸 i alliberaci贸 de mol猫cules d鈥檃cci贸 endocrina com ara FGF21 i refor莽a la idea de considerar el m煤scul esquel猫tic com a una important font d鈥橣GF21, la qual podem considerar com a una mioquina.[eng] Although the liver is generally considered the main production site for fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), high FGF21 levels have been found to be associated with neuromuscular mitochondrial genetic diseases, and there are indications that shows muscle as a source of FGF21 production under conditions of muscular mitochondrial stress. In this thesis we describe that FGF21 expression and release is associated with myogenic differentiation in different muscular cell lines. However, FGFRs transcription levels don鈥檛 change across differentiation and 尾-Klotho is undetectable, suggesting that muscle cells as a source but not as a target of FGF21. Furthermore we have identified MyoD as a major controller of FGF21 gene transcription, as well as we have mapped the most important region in the promoter responsible for MyoD-dependent regulation. Moreover, we determined the role of some transcription factors and co-regulators potentially involved in the control of FGF21 gene transcription, such as PPARs, PGC-1伪 or Sirt1, as well as several natural and synthetic agents (e.g. fatty acids) On the other hand, mimicking mitochondrial dysfunction by the use of respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors resulted in enhanced expression and release of FGF21 by muscle cells. Increased production of reactive oxygen species, subsequent induction of p38-MAP kinase and activation of an ATF2-binding site at the proximal promoter region of the FGF21 gene were found to comprise the major mechanism connecting mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced FGF21 gene transcription in myogenic cells. Furthermore, we show that MyoD is required for the responsiveness of FGF21 gene transcription to experimentally induced mitochondrial dysfunction, which explains the preferential response of muscle cells to enhanced FGF21 secretion in response to mitochondrial alterations. FGF21 release by muscle cells in response to mitochondrial alterations may reflect a physiological mechanism by which the sensing of internal energetic status by muscle tissue results in the release of FGF21 to favor systemic metabolic adaptations. This process highlights the capacity of mitochondrial function to influence systemic metabolism by retrograde signaling, which leads to the expression and release of molecules with endocrine action, such as FGF2,1 and reinforces the concept of considering the skeletal muscle as an important source of the FGF21, as well as to consider FGF21 as a myokine

    Regulaci贸 de FGF21 en la c猫l路lula muscular

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    [cat] Tot i que el fetge 茅s considerat com el principal lloc de producci贸 del FGF21 sist猫mic, sobretot en condicions de dejuni i sota control de PPAR伪, darrerament s鈥檋an acumulat diverses evid猫ncies que indiquen que FGF21 tamb茅 pot actuar com a mioquina, un factor hormonal que pot ser produ茂t i alliberat a la circulaci贸 pel m煤scul esquel猫tic. Concretament, s鈥檋a observat que pacients que pateixen malalties neuromusculars causades per alteracions en la funci贸 mitocondrial, com ara mutacions i deplecions al DNA mitocondrial, presenten valors d鈥檈xpressi贸 d鈥橣GF21 incrementats, aix铆 com tamb茅 els de la seva secreci贸 a la circulaci贸. Per tant, alguns indicis mostren que el m煤scul pot ser un lloc de producci贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 associat a l鈥檈str猫s mitocondrial muscular. Durant la realitzaci贸 d鈥檃questa tesi, hem trobat que l鈥檈xpressi贸 i la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 en un context de c猫l鈥ula muscular estan 铆ntimament associades amb la diferenciaci贸 miog猫nica tant en rosegadors com en models humans. Per contra, els nivells dels seus receptors es mantenen bastant estables, mentre que pel que fa al cofactor 尾-Klotho, necessari pel seu proc茅s de senyalitzaci贸, no es detecta expressi贸 del transcrit. Aquest fet suggereix, que la c猫l鈥ula muscular podria ser una font d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21, per貌 no un teixit diana d鈥檃questa. A part, s鈥檋a identificat el factor miog猫nic MyoD com a un regulador molt potent de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21, aix铆 com tamb茅 se n鈥檋a mapat la regi贸 del promotor responsable de vehicular aquest efecte. D鈥檃ltra banda, s鈥檋an intentat descriure altres factors de transcripci贸 i coreguladors que poden actuar com a activadors o inhibidors, els quals poden estar involucrats en el control de la transcripci贸 g猫nica d鈥橣GF21, com ara els PPARs, PGC-1伪 o Sirt1, aix铆 com tamb茅 esbrinar els efectes de diversos activadors naturals i sint猫tics. En aquest sentit, val la pena destacar que dins d鈥檜n context en pres猫ncia del factor miog猫nic MyoD s鈥檋a identificat a PPAR伪, juntament amb el seu activador, com a un clar activador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional d鈥檃quest promotor. PGC-1伪, sembla actuar de la mateixa manera, potenciant-ne l鈥檈fecte en pres猫ncia de MyoD. Per contra, Sirt1 s鈥檋a revelat com a un inactivador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional del gen FGF21 en pres猫ncia del factor MyoD. Altres experiments indiquen que el tractament amb diferents 脿cids grassos no sorgeixen cap efecte sobre l鈥檈xpressi贸 ni la secreci贸 del gen en el context muscular, sin贸 m茅s aviat el contrari, malgrat que la c猫l鈥ula muscular es mostrava sensible a l鈥檃cci贸 dels 脿cids grassos sobre altres gens. De la mateixa manera que ja indicaven determinats indicis bibliogr脿fics, vam poder comprovar que pacients de patologia MNGIE (miopatia associada a alteracions del DNA mitocondrial), mostraven la pres猫ncia d鈥檃lts nivells d鈥橣GF21 circulants. Aix铆 doncs, intentant mimetitzar una disfunci贸 mitocondrial experimentalment, utilitzant inhibidors de la cadena respirat貌ria/fosforilaci贸 oxidativa, es van poder confirmar aquests increments d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars. Investigant una mica m茅s a fons la mecan铆stica de tot el proc茅s, es va veure que l鈥檌ncrement de la producci贸 d鈥檈sp猫cies reactives d鈥檕xigen derivades d鈥檃questa disfunci贸, provocava una inducci贸 de la p38-MAP cinasa i conseq眉entment l鈥檃ctivaci贸 ATF2, el qual 茅s capa莽 d鈥檌nteraccionar amb el seu lloc d鈥檜ni贸 en la regi贸 proximal del promotor del gen FGF21, provocant aix铆 aquest efecte sobre el gen FGF21 a les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques. Alhora, s鈥檋a descrit que la pres猫ncia de MyoD 茅s imprescindible per tal que es doni la resposta de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21 a la disfunci贸 mitocondrial indu茂da experimentalment, justificant la resposta d鈥檌ncrement de la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars en resposta a aquesta disfunci贸. Aquests canvis en la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques en resposta a les afectacions a nivell mitocondrial, tamb茅 poden ser un reflex del mecanisme fisiol貌gic pel qual es detecten canvis a nivell d鈥檈status energ猫tic a nivell muscular. D鈥檃questa manera, un increment de l鈥檃lliberaci贸 d鈥橣GF21 podria desencadenar diferents respostes metab貌liques adaptatives a nivell sist猫mic. Aquest proc茅s posa de manifest la gran capacitat que t茅 la funci贸 mitocondrial, per tal d鈥檌nfluenciar en el metabolisme sist猫mic a trav茅s de la senyalitzaci贸 mitocondrial retr貌grada. Aix铆 doncs, aquest mecanisme de senyalitzaci贸 permet l鈥檈xpressi贸 i alliberaci贸 de mol猫cules d鈥檃cci贸 endocrina com ara FGF21 i refor莽a la idea de considerar el m煤scul esquel猫tic com a una important font d鈥橣GF21, la qual podem considerar com a una mioquina.[eng] Although the liver is generally considered the main production site for fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), high FGF21 levels have been found to be associated with neuromuscular mitochondrial genetic diseases, and there are indications that shows muscle as a source of FGF21 production under conditions of muscular mitochondrial stress. In this thesis we describe that FGF21 expression and release is associated with myogenic differentiation in different muscular cell lines. However, FGFRs transcription levels don鈥檛 change across differentiation and 尾-Klotho is undetectable, suggesting that muscle cells as a source but not as a target of FGF21. Furthermore we have identified MyoD as a major controller of FGF21 gene transcription, as well as we have mapped the most important region in the promoter responsible for MyoD-dependent regulation. Moreover, we determined the role of some transcription factors and co-regulators potentially involved in the control of FGF21 gene transcription, such as PPARs, PGC-1伪 or Sirt1, as well as several natural and synthetic agents (e.g. fatty acids) On the other hand, mimicking mitochondrial dysfunction by the use of respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors resulted in enhanced expression and release of FGF21 by muscle cells. Increased production of reactive oxygen species, subsequent induction of p38-MAP kinase and activation of an ATF2-binding site at the proximal promoter region of the FGF21 gene were found to comprise the major mechanism connecting mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced FGF21 gene transcription in myogenic cells. Furthermore, we show that MyoD is required for the responsiveness of FGF21 gene transcription to experimentally induced mitochondrial dysfunction, which explains the preferential response of muscle cells to enhanced FGF21 secretion in response to mitochondrial alterations. FGF21 release by muscle cells in response to mitochondrial alterations may reflect a physiological mechanism by which the sensing of internal energetic status by muscle tissue results in the release of FGF21 to favor systemic metabolic adaptations. This process highlights the capacity of mitochondrial function to influence systemic metabolism by retrograde signaling, which leads to the expression and release of molecules with endocrine action, such as FGF2,1 and reinforces the concept of considering the skeletal muscle as an important source of the FGF21, as well as to consider FGF21 as a myokine

    Regulaci贸 de FGF21 en la c猫l路lula muscular

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    [cat] Tot i que el fetge 茅s considerat com el principal lloc de producci贸 del FGF21 sist猫mic, sobretot en condicions de dejuni i sota control de PPAR伪, darrerament s鈥檋an acumulat diverses evid猫ncies que indiquen que FGF21 tamb茅 pot actuar com a mioquina, un factor hormonal que pot ser produ茂t i alliberat a la circulaci贸 pel m煤scul esquel猫tic. Concretament, s鈥檋a observat que pacients que pateixen malalties neuromusculars causades per alteracions en la funci贸 mitocondrial, com ara mutacions i deplecions al DNA mitocondrial, presenten valors d鈥檈xpressi贸 d鈥橣GF21 incrementats, aix铆 com tamb茅 els de la seva secreci贸 a la circulaci贸. Per tant, alguns indicis mostren que el m煤scul pot ser un lloc de producci贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 associat a l鈥檈str猫s mitocondrial muscular. Durant la realitzaci贸 d鈥檃questa tesi, hem trobat que l鈥檈xpressi贸 i la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 en un context de c猫l鈥ula muscular estan 铆ntimament associades amb la diferenciaci贸 miog猫nica tant en rosegadors com en models humans. Per contra, els nivells dels seus receptors es mantenen bastant estables, mentre que pel que fa al cofactor 尾-Klotho, necessari pel seu proc茅s de senyalitzaci贸, no es detecta expressi贸 del transcrit. Aquest fet suggereix, que la c猫l鈥ula muscular podria ser una font d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21, per貌 no un teixit diana d鈥檃questa. A part, s鈥檋a identificat el factor miog猫nic MyoD com a un regulador molt potent de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21, aix铆 com tamb茅 se n鈥檋a mapat la regi贸 del promotor responsable de vehicular aquest efecte. D鈥檃ltra banda, s鈥檋an intentat descriure altres factors de transcripci贸 i coreguladors que poden actuar com a activadors o inhibidors, els quals poden estar involucrats en el control de la transcripci贸 g猫nica d鈥橣GF21, com ara els PPARs, PGC-1伪 o Sirt1, aix铆 com tamb茅 esbrinar els efectes de diversos activadors naturals i sint猫tics. En aquest sentit, val la pena destacar que dins d鈥檜n context en pres猫ncia del factor miog猫nic MyoD s鈥檋a identificat a PPAR伪, juntament amb el seu activador, com a un clar activador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional d鈥檃quest promotor. PGC-1伪, sembla actuar de la mateixa manera, potenciant-ne l鈥檈fecte en pres猫ncia de MyoD. Per contra, Sirt1 s鈥檋a revelat com a un inactivador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional del gen FGF21 en pres猫ncia del factor MyoD. Altres experiments indiquen que el tractament amb diferents 脿cids grassos no sorgeixen cap efecte sobre l鈥檈xpressi贸 ni la secreci贸 del gen en el context muscular, sin贸 m茅s aviat el contrari, malgrat que la c猫l鈥ula muscular es mostrava sensible a l鈥檃cci贸 dels 脿cids grassos sobre altres gens. De la mateixa manera que ja indicaven determinats indicis bibliogr脿fics, vam poder comprovar que pacients de patologia MNGIE (miopatia associada a alteracions del DNA mitocondrial), mostraven la pres猫ncia d鈥檃lts nivells d鈥橣GF21 circulants. Aix铆 doncs, intentant mimetitzar una disfunci贸 mitocondrial experimentalment, utilitzant inhibidors de la cadena respirat貌ria/fosforilaci贸 oxidativa, es van poder confirmar aquests increments d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars. Investigant una mica m茅s a fons la mecan铆stica de tot el proc茅s, es va veure que l鈥檌ncrement de la producci贸 d鈥檈sp猫cies reactives d鈥檕xigen derivades d鈥檃questa disfunci贸, provocava una inducci贸 de la p38-MAP cinasa i conseq眉entment l鈥檃ctivaci贸 ATF2, el qual 茅s capa莽 d鈥檌nteraccionar amb el seu lloc d鈥檜ni贸 en la regi贸 proximal del promotor del gen FGF21, provocant aix铆 aquest efecte sobre el gen FGF21 a les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques. Alhora, s鈥檋a descrit que la pres猫ncia de MyoD 茅s imprescindible per tal que es doni la resposta de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21 a la disfunci贸 mitocondrial indu茂da experimentalment, justificant la resposta d鈥檌ncrement de la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars en resposta a aquesta disfunci贸. Aquests canvis en la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques en resposta a les afectacions a nivell mitocondrial, tamb茅 poden ser un reflex del mecanisme fisiol貌gic pel qual es detecten canvis a nivell d鈥檈status energ猫tic a nivell muscular. D鈥檃questa manera, un increment de l鈥檃lliberaci贸 d鈥橣GF21 podria desencadenar diferents respostes metab貌liques adaptatives a nivell sist猫mic. Aquest proc茅s posa de manifest la gran capacitat que t茅 la funci贸 mitocondrial, per tal d鈥檌nfluenciar en el metabolisme sist猫mic a trav茅s de la senyalitzaci贸 mitocondrial retr貌grada. Aix铆 doncs, aquest mecanisme de senyalitzaci贸 permet l鈥檈xpressi贸 i alliberaci贸 de mol猫cules d鈥檃cci贸 endocrina com ara FGF21 i refor莽a la idea de considerar el m煤scul esquel猫tic com a una important font d鈥橣GF21, la qual podem considerar com a una mioquina.[eng] Although the liver is generally considered the main production site for fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), high FGF21 levels have been found to be associated with neuromuscular mitochondrial genetic diseases, and there are indications that shows muscle as a source of FGF21 production under conditions of muscular mitochondrial stress. In this thesis we describe that FGF21 expression and release is associated with myogenic differentiation in different muscular cell lines. However, FGFRs transcription levels don鈥檛 change across differentiation and 尾-Klotho is undetectable, suggesting that muscle cells as a source but not as a target of FGF21. Furthermore we have identified MyoD as a major controller of FGF21 gene transcription, as well as we have mapped the most important region in the promoter responsible for MyoD-dependent regulation. Moreover, we determined the role of some transcription factors and co-regulators potentially involved in the control of FGF21 gene transcription, such as PPARs, PGC-1伪 or Sirt1, as well as several natural and synthetic agents (e.g. fatty acids) On the other hand, mimicking mitochondrial dysfunction by the use of respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors resulted in enhanced expression and release of FGF21 by muscle cells. Increased production of reactive oxygen species, subsequent induction of p38-MAP kinase and activation of an ATF2-binding site at the proximal promoter region of the FGF21 gene were found to comprise the major mechanism connecting mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced FGF21 gene transcription in myogenic cells. Furthermore, we show that MyoD is required for the responsiveness of FGF21 gene transcription to experimentally induced mitochondrial dysfunction, which explains the preferential response of muscle cells to enhanced FGF21 secretion in response to mitochondrial alterations. FGF21 release by muscle cells in response to mitochondrial alterations may reflect a physiological mechanism by which the sensing of internal energetic status by muscle tissue results in the release of FGF21 to favor systemic metabolic adaptations. This process highlights the capacity of mitochondrial function to influence systemic metabolism by retrograde signaling, which leads to the expression and release of molecules with endocrine action, such as FGF2,1 and reinforces the concept of considering the skeletal muscle as an important source of the FGF21, as well as to consider FGF21 as a myokine

    Regulaci贸 de FGF21 en la c猫l路lula muscular

    Full text link
    [cat] Tot i que el fetge 茅s considerat com el principal lloc de producci贸 del FGF21 sist猫mic, sobretot en condicions de dejuni i sota control de PPAR伪, darrerament s鈥檋an acumulat diverses evid猫ncies que indiquen que FGF21 tamb茅 pot actuar com a mioquina, un factor hormonal que pot ser produ茂t i alliberat a la circulaci贸 pel m煤scul esquel猫tic. Concretament, s鈥檋a observat que pacients que pateixen malalties neuromusculars causades per alteracions en la funci贸 mitocondrial, com ara mutacions i deplecions al DNA mitocondrial, presenten valors d鈥檈xpressi贸 d鈥橣GF21 incrementats, aix铆 com tamb茅 els de la seva secreci贸 a la circulaci贸. Per tant, alguns indicis mostren que el m煤scul pot ser un lloc de producci贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 associat a l鈥檈str猫s mitocondrial muscular. Durant la realitzaci贸 d鈥檃questa tesi, hem trobat que l鈥檈xpressi贸 i la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 en un context de c猫l鈥ula muscular estan 铆ntimament associades amb la diferenciaci贸 miog猫nica tant en rosegadors com en models humans. Per contra, els nivells dels seus receptors es mantenen bastant estables, mentre que pel que fa al cofactor 尾-Klotho, necessari pel seu proc茅s de senyalitzaci贸, no es detecta expressi贸 del transcrit. Aquest fet suggereix, que la c猫l鈥ula muscular podria ser una font d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21, per貌 no un teixit diana d鈥檃questa. A part, s鈥檋a identificat el factor miog猫nic MyoD com a un regulador molt potent de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21, aix铆 com tamb茅 se n鈥檋a mapat la regi贸 del promotor responsable de vehicular aquest efecte. D鈥檃ltra banda, s鈥檋an intentat descriure altres factors de transcripci贸 i coreguladors que poden actuar com a activadors o inhibidors, els quals poden estar involucrats en el control de la transcripci贸 g猫nica d鈥橣GF21, com ara els PPARs, PGC-1伪 o Sirt1, aix铆 com tamb茅 esbrinar els efectes de diversos activadors naturals i sint猫tics. En aquest sentit, val la pena destacar que dins d鈥檜n context en pres猫ncia del factor miog猫nic MyoD s鈥檋a identificat a PPAR伪, juntament amb el seu activador, com a un clar activador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional d鈥檃quest promotor. PGC-1伪, sembla actuar de la mateixa manera, potenciant-ne l鈥檈fecte en pres猫ncia de MyoD. Per contra, Sirt1 s鈥檋a revelat com a un inactivador de l鈥檃ctivitat transcripcional del gen FGF21 en pres猫ncia del factor MyoD. Altres experiments indiquen que el tractament amb diferents 脿cids grassos no sorgeixen cap efecte sobre l鈥檈xpressi贸 ni la secreci贸 del gen en el context muscular, sin贸 m茅s aviat el contrari, malgrat que la c猫l鈥ula muscular es mostrava sensible a l鈥檃cci贸 dels 脿cids grassos sobre altres gens. De la mateixa manera que ja indicaven determinats indicis bibliogr脿fics, vam poder comprovar que pacients de patologia MNGIE (miopatia associada a alteracions del DNA mitocondrial), mostraven la pres猫ncia d鈥檃lts nivells d鈥橣GF21 circulants. Aix铆 doncs, intentant mimetitzar una disfunci贸 mitocondrial experimentalment, utilitzant inhibidors de la cadena respirat貌ria/fosforilaci贸 oxidativa, es van poder confirmar aquests increments d鈥檈xpressi贸 i secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars. Investigant una mica m茅s a fons la mecan铆stica de tot el proc茅s, es va veure que l鈥檌ncrement de la producci贸 d鈥檈sp猫cies reactives d鈥檕xigen derivades d鈥檃questa disfunci贸, provocava una inducci贸 de la p38-MAP cinasa i conseq眉entment l鈥檃ctivaci贸 ATF2, el qual 茅s capa莽 d鈥檌nteraccionar amb el seu lloc d鈥檜ni贸 en la regi贸 proximal del promotor del gen FGF21, provocant aix铆 aquest efecte sobre el gen FGF21 a les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques. Alhora, s鈥檋a descrit que la pres猫ncia de MyoD 茅s imprescindible per tal que es doni la resposta de la transcripci贸 del gen FGF21 a la disfunci贸 mitocondrial indu茂da experimentalment, justificant la resposta d鈥檌ncrement de la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules musculars en resposta a aquesta disfunci贸. Aquests canvis en la secreci贸 d鈥橣GF21 per part de les c猫l鈥ules miog猫niques en resposta a les afectacions a nivell mitocondrial, tamb茅 poden ser un reflex del mecanisme fisiol貌gic pel qual es detecten canvis a nivell d鈥檈status energ猫tic a nivell muscular. D鈥檃questa manera, un increment de l鈥檃lliberaci贸 d鈥橣GF21 podria desencadenar diferents respostes metab貌liques adaptatives a nivell sist猫mic. Aquest proc茅s posa de manifest la gran capacitat que t茅 la funci贸 mitocondrial, per tal d鈥檌nfluenciar en el metabolisme sist猫mic a trav茅s de la senyalitzaci贸 mitocondrial retr貌grada. Aix铆 doncs, aquest mecanisme de senyalitzaci贸 permet l鈥檈xpressi贸 i alliberaci贸 de mol猫cules d鈥檃cci贸 endocrina com ara FGF21 i refor莽a la idea de considerar el m煤scul esquel猫tic com a una important font d鈥橣GF21, la qual podem considerar com a una mioquina.[eng] Although the liver is generally considered the main production site for fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), high FGF21 levels have been found to be associated with neuromuscular mitochondrial genetic diseases, and there are indications that shows muscle as a source of FGF21 production under conditions of muscular mitochondrial stress. In this thesis we describe that FGF21 expression and release is associated with myogenic differentiation in different muscular cell lines. However, FGFRs transcription levels don鈥檛 change across differentiation and 尾-Klotho is undetectable, suggesting that muscle cells as a source but not as a target of FGF21. Furthermore we have identified MyoD as a major controller of FGF21 gene transcription, as well as we have mapped the most important region in the promoter responsible for MyoD-dependent regulation. Moreover, we determined the role of some transcription factors and co-regulators potentially involved in the control of FGF21 gene transcription, such as PPARs, PGC-1伪 or Sirt1, as well as several natural and synthetic agents (e.g. fatty acids) On the other hand, mimicking mitochondrial dysfunction by the use of respiratory chain/oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors resulted in enhanced expression and release of FGF21 by muscle cells. Increased production of reactive oxygen species, subsequent induction of p38-MAP kinase and activation of an ATF2-binding site at the proximal promoter region of the FGF21 gene were found to comprise the major mechanism connecting mitochondrial dysfunction and enhanced FGF21 gene transcription in myogenic cells. Furthermore, we show that MyoD is required for the responsiveness of FGF21 gene transcription to experimentally induced mitochondrial dysfunction, which explains the preferential response of muscle cells to enhanced FGF21 secretion in response to mitochondrial alterations. FGF21 release by muscle cells in response to mitochondrial alterations may reflect a physiological mechanism by which the sensing of internal energetic status by muscle tissue results in the release of FGF21 to favor systemic metabolic adaptations. This process highlights the capacity of mitochondrial function to influence systemic metabolism by retrograde signaling, which leads to the expression and release of molecules with endocrine action, such as FGF2,1 and reinforces the concept of considering the skeletal muscle as an important source of the FGF21, as well as to consider FGF21 as a myokine
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