Increasing Dietary Linoleic Acid Does Not Increase Tissue Arachidonic Acid Content in Adults Consuming Western- Type Diets

Linoleic acid, with a DRI of 12-17g/d, is the most highly consumed polyunsaturated fatty acid in the Western diet and is found in virtually all commonly consumed foods. The concern with dietary linoleic acid, being the metabolic precursor of arachidonic acid, is its consumption may enrich tissues with arachidonic acid and contribute to chronic and overproduction of bioactive eicosanoids. However, no systematic review of human trials regarding linoleic acid consumption and subsequent changes in tissue levels of arachidonic acid has been undertaken. In this study, we reviewed the human literature that reported changes in dietary linoleic acid and its subsequent impact on changing tissue arachidonic acid in erythrocytes and plasma/serum phospholipids. We identified, reviewed, and evaluated all peer-reviewed published literature presenting data outlining changes in dietary linoleic acid in adult human clinical trials that reported changes in phospholipid fatty acid composition (specifically arachidonic acid) in plasma/serum and erythrocytes within the parameters of our inclusion/exclusion criteria. Decreasing dietary linoleic acid up to 90% was not significantly correlated with changes in tissue arachidonic acid levels (p=0.39). Similarly, when dietary linoleic acid levels were increased six fold, no significant correlations with tissue arachidonic acid levels were observed (p=0.72). However, there was a positive relationship between dietary gamma-linolenic acid and arachidonic acid on changes in tissue arachidonic levels. Our results do not support the concept that modifying current intakes of dietary linoleic acid has an effect on changing tissue levels of arachidonic acid in adults consuming Western-type diets

Antonymy In Space And Other Strictly Ordered Domains

Natural language references different types of entities. Some of these entities (e.g. degrees, locations, times) are strictly ordered with respect to one another; others (e.g. individuals, possible worlds) are not. The empirical goal of this paper is to show that some linguistically encoded relations across these domains (e.g. under, slower than) display a polar asymmetry, while others do not. The theoretical goal of this paper is to argue that this asymmetry – and its restriction to only certain relations – is due to intrinsic properties of strictly ordered domains, coupled with a bias in how language users perceive these domains

Education and Promotion of Human Rights from a European and American Perspective

From introduction: "The relationship between education and implementation of programs for the protection of rights and freedoms has been substantiated by the numerous documents produced by international conferences on human rights, such as; the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights , the 1978 UNESCO International Congress in Vienna on the Teaching of Human Rights , the Congress in Seville in 1986 and in Malta in 1987, the Seminar in Geneva in 1988 celebrating the 40th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the World Conference in Vienna on Human Rights in 1993, the Montreal International Congress on Education for Human Rights and Democracy on 1993 , and many others."(...

The Beginning of the Constitutional Era: A Bicentennial Comparative Study of the American and French Constitutions

This article is intended only to be introductory. The author is quite aware that the period surrounding the creation of the American Constitution has been profoundly studied; thorough analysis has been provided concerning both the origin and historical development of the American Constitution, as well as the intellectual background of the founding generation. Characteristically, these studies have focused on the American constitutional tradition, which means that they have been limited to little more than two centuries of colonial experience. This essay follows a different vein of inquiry. The author\u27s purpose is not to add another article to the numerous works already devoted to American constitutional development. Rather, the focus of this work is on France. The first part of the article concentrates on the period in which the British colonies had not yet been established or when their organization was in embryo; this part will focus mostly on French constitutional traditions as compared to English traditions, and traditions of Poland - the first European country to adopt a written constitution. The ensuing parts compare the intellectual background of the framers of the American and French Constitutions, central principles of those documents, and their impact on the constitutional developments in both countries