Theory of mind in animals : current and future directions

C.K. was supported by European Commission Marie Skłodowska‐Curie fellowship MENTALIZINGORIGINS and J.C. by European Research Council Synergy grant 609819 SOMICS.Theory of mind (ToM; a.k.a., mind-reading, mentalizing, mental-state attribution, and perspective-taking) is the ability to ascribe mental states, such as desires and beliefs, to others, and it is central to the unique forms of communication, cooperation, and culture that define our species. As a result, for 40 years, researchers have endeavored to determine whether ToM is itself unique to humans. Investigations in other species (e.g., apes, monkeys, corvids) are essential to understand the mechanistic underpinnings and evolutionary origins of this capacity across taxa, including humans. We review the literature on ToM in nonhuman animals, suggesting that some species share foundational social cognitive mechanisms with humans. We focus principally on innovations of the last decade and pressing directions for future work. Underexplored types of social cognition have been targeted, including ascription of mental states, such as desires and beliefs, that require simultaneously representing one's own and another's conflicting motives or views of the world. Ongoing efforts probe the motivational facets of ToM, how flexibly animals can recruit social cognitive skills across cooperative and competitive settings, and appropriate motivational contexts for comparative inquiry. Finally, novel methodological and empirical approaches have brought new species (e.g., lemurs, dogs) into the lab, implemented critical controls to elucidate underlying mechanisms, and contributed powerful new techniques (e.g., looking-time, eye-tracking) that open the door to unexplored approaches for studying animal minds. These innovations in cognition, motivation, and method promise fruitful progress in the years to come, in understanding the nature and origin of ToM in humans and other species.PostprintPeer reviewe

No effects of GSM-modulated 900 MHz electromagnetic fields on survival rate and spontaneous development of lymphoma in female AKR/J mice

BACKGROUND: Several reports indicated that non-thermal electromagnetic radiation such as from mobile phones and base stations may promote cancer. Therefore, it was investigated experimentally, whether 900 MHz electromagnetic field exposure influences lymphoma development in a mouse strain that is genetically predisposed to this disease. The AKR/J mice genome carries the AK-virus, which leads within one year to spontaneous development of thymic lymphoblastic lymphoma. METHODS: 320 unrestrained female mice were sham-exposed or exposed (each n = 160 animals) to GSM like 900 MHz electromagnetic fields for 24 hours per day, 7 days per week, at an average whole body specific absorption rate (SAR) value of 0.4 W/kg. Animals were visually checked daily and were weighed and palpated weekly. Starting with an age of 6 months, blood samples were taken monthly from the tail. Animals with signs of disease or with an age of about 46 weeks were sacrificed and a gross necropsy was performed. RESULTS: Electromagnetic field exposure had a significant effect on body weight gain, with higher values in exposed than in sham-exposed animals. However, survival rate and lymphoma incidence did not differ between exposed and sham-exposed mice. CONCLUSION: These data do not support the hypothesis that exposure to 900 MHz electromagnetic fields is a significant risk factor for developing lymphoma in a genetically predisposed species, even at a relatively high exposure level

Predicting Friendship Quality in Autism Spectrum Disorders and Typical Development

The role played by social relationship variables (attachment security; mother–child relationship qualities) and social-cognitive capacities (theory of mind) was examined in both observed friendship behaviors and in children’s descriptions of friendships (age 8–12) with high functioning children with autism spectrum disorders (HFASD) (n = 44) and with typical development (TYP) (n = 38). Overall, half of the HFASD sample (54.45%) reported maternal attachment security, corroborating data from younger children with ASD. The hypothesized predictors and their interrelations had both direct and indirect effects on friendship for both groups of children, highlighting the importance of these factors in children’s friendship development and suggesting both compensatory and amplification mechanisms for friendship qualities. Practical and clinical implications are discussed for friendship support in both ASD and TYP

UVA/UVA1 phototherapy and PUVA photochemotherapy in connective tissue diseases and related disorders: a research based review

BACKGROUND: Broad-band UVA, long-wave UVA1 and PUVA treatment have been described as an alternative/adjunct therapeutic option in a number of inflammatory and malignant skin diseases. Nevertheless, controlled studies investigating the efficacy of UVA irradiation in connective tissue diseases and related disorders are rare. METHODS: Searching the PubMed database the current article systematically reviews established and innovative therapeutic approaches of broad-band UVA irradiation, UVA1 phototherapy and PUVA photochemotherapy in a variety of different connective tissue disorders. RESULTS: Potential pathways include immunomodulation of inflammation, induction of collagenases and initiation of apoptosis. Even though holding the risk of carcinogenesis, photoaging or UV-induced exacerbation, UVA phototherapy seems to exhibit a tolerable risk/benefit ratio at least in systemic sclerosis, localized scleroderma, extragenital lichen sclerosus et atrophicus, sclerodermoid graft-versus-host disease, lupus erythematosus and a number of sclerotic rarities. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the data retrieved from the literature, therapeutic UVA exposure seems to be effective in connective tissue diseases and related disorders. However, more controlled investigations are needed in order to establish a clear-cut catalogue of indications

Izloženost genotoksičnim agensima iz životnog okoliša tijekom prenatalnog razvoja i djetinjstva

Health disorders and diseases related to environmental exposure in children such as cancer and immunologic disturbances (asthma, allergies) are on the rise. However, complex transplacental and prepubertal genotoxicology is given very limited consideration, even though intrauterine development and early childhood may be critical for elucidating the cancer aetiology. The foetus is transplacentally exposed to contaminants in food and environment such as various chemicals, drugs, radiochemically contaminated water and air. Target organs of xenobiotic action may differ between the mother and the foetus due to specific stage of developmental physiology and enzyme distribution. This in turn may lead to different levels of clastogenic and aneugenic metabolites of the same xenobiotic in the mother and the foetus. Adult’s protective behaviour is not sufficient to isolate children from radioisotopes, pesticides, toxic metals and metalloids, environmental tobacco smoke, endocrine disrupting chemicals, and various food contaminants, which are just a part of the stressors present in a polluted environment. In order to improve legislation related to foetus and child exposure to genotoxic and possibly carcinogenic agents, oncologists, paediatricians, environmental health specialists, and genotoxicologists should work together much more closely to make a more effective use of accumulated scientific data, with the final aim to lower cancer incidence and mortality.Unatoč velikim naporima da se smanji okolišna izloženost u djece se dalje bilježi trend porasta pojavnosti karcinoma i imunosnih poremećaja (astma, alergije). Premda su intrauterini razvoj i rano djetinjstvo kritično razdoblje za tumačenje etiologije nastanka karcinoma, transplacentalna i prepubertetna genotoksikologija do danas su slabo istražene. Fetus je transplacentalno izložen brojnim fizikalnim i kemijskim čimbenicima: kontaminantima iz hrane i okoliša, radiokemijski kontaminiranoj vodi, zraku te lijekovima. Ciljna tkiva za djelovanje ksenobiotika mogu biti različita u majke i fetusa zbog različitosti u razvojnoj fiziologiji i distribuciji enzima. Zbog toga u organizmu majke i fetusa mogu nastati različite razine klastogenih i aneugenih metabolita istog ksenobiotika. Zaštitna uloga odraslih u namjeri da spriječe negativne utjecaje onečišćenog okoliša na djetetovo zdravlje često je ograničena jer su radioizotopi, olovo, PCB, pasivno pušenje, živa, endokrino aktivne tvari, pesticidi i kontaminanti prisutni u svim životnim područjima tijekom razvoja i rasta djeteta. Kako bi se poboljšalo zakonodavstvo vezano uz izloženost djece genotoksičnim i vjerojatno kancerogenim tvarima, tijekom razvoja potrebna je bolja suradnja onkologa, pedijatara, stručnjaka zdravstvene ekologije i genotoksikologa. Na taj način ostvarilo bi se uspješnije iskorištavanje postojećih znanstvenih podataka u cilju smanjenja incidencije karcinoma i mortaliteta

Early Social Cognition: Alternatives to Implicit Mindreading

According to the BD-model of mindreading, we primarily understand others in terms of beliefs and desires. In this article we review a number of objections against explicit versions of the BD-model, and discuss the prospects of using its implicit counterpart as an explanatory model of early emerging socio-cognitive abilities. Focusing on recent findings on so-called ‘implicit’ false belief understanding, we put forward a number of considerations against the adoption of an implicit BD-model. Finally, we explore a different way to make sense of implicit false belief understanding in terms of keeping track of affordances