Spidermankjole! : en diakron sammenligning av kjønnets betydning i barns relasjoner i to kvalitative barnehagestudier

Problemområde Denne oppgavens sentrale målsetting er å undersøke hvordan barn vokser opp som sosialt og psykologisk kjønnede individer. I utgangspunktet skulle problemstillingen belyses gjennom en empirisk kvalitativ undersøkelse. Gjennom inspirasjon fra paraplyprosjektet ”Nye kjønn, andre krav” ved Senter for Tverrfaglig Kjønnsforskning og møte med Sigurd Berentzens magistergradsavhandling i sosialantropologi fra 1967 ”Kjønnskontrasten i barns lek”, ble en endringsdimensjon tilføyet studien. Motivasjonen for tilføyelsen er at en historisk sammenligning kan bidra til å belyse nåtiden og dermed relevante sider ved problemstillingen. Oppgavens problemstillinger er: Hvordan får kjønn betydning i en gruppe barnehagebarns relasjoner, både barn imellom og mellom barn og ansatte? Hvordan har betydningen av kjønn endret seg siden 1960-tallet med utgangspunkt i en sammenligning av to grupper barnehagebarn? Metode/Kilde En kontekstualisert og kritisk lesning av Berentsens avhandling danner grunnlaget for en diakron sammenligning med kvalitative data innhentet i 2008. Den kritiske lesningen danner også utgangspunkt for denne oppgavens metodiske og teoretiske grunnlag. Metoden for å innhente kvalitative data om barns relasjoner i 2008 er et tre ukers feltarbeid i en barnehage. Den kritiske lesning kontekstualiserer først avhandlingen i forhold til en generell utvikling av kjønnsforskningsfeltet. Berentzens avhandling har et annet utgangspunkt enn kjønnsforskning i dag, men den har likevel beholdt en sentral posisjon. Dette ses i sammenheng med Berentzens banebrytende metodiske og teoretiske forståelse og anvendelse knyttet til begrepene ”barnekultur” og ”aktørperspektiv”. En nærmere undersøkelse viser at den statiske og entydige kjønnskontrasten i Berentzens studie valideres av gjennomgående, internasjonale funn i senere kjønnsforskning og ender i det som etter hvert ble en ”to-kulturforståelse” av barns kjønn: At gutter og jenter langt på vei utvikler og lever i to adskilte og forskjellige kulturer. Videre undersøkes det hvordan kjønnsforskningen har utviklet seg frem til i dag. Undersøkelsen ender med å redegjøre for poststrukturalismen, med særlig fokus på begrepet ”å gjøre kjønn” som utviklet blant annet av Candace West & Don H. Zimmerman og Judith Butler. Oppgavens videre drøfting består i hvordan en performativ forståelse av kjønn kan nyttiggjøres og videreutvikles. Et forslag går i retning av å trekke inn læringsteori, og hvordan barn ”lærer kjønn”. Berentzens sentrale teoretisering knyttet til barns samhandling tar utgangspunkt George H. Meads sosialbehavioristiske læringsteori. En videreføring innebærer å drøfte Meads begrepsapparat innenfor rammene av sosiokulturell læringsteori i tradisjonen etter Lev Vygotsky. Forslaget til hvordan kjønn læres, utvikles gjennom begreper som internalisering, lek, intersubjektivitet og mediert handling og sentrale teoretikere er James Wertsch, Erling Lars Dale og Stein Bråten. Den generelle samfunnsutvikling, med særlig fokus på barn og barndomsforståelser, undersøkes med utgangspunkt i noen faktiske forhold i de to empiriske studiene, samt generelle sosiologiske endringer og teori knyttet til såkalt post- eller senmodernitet. Analysen består i å undersøke betingelsene for læring av kjønnsnormer, om betingelsene eventuelt har endret seg og hva slike endringer kan ha å si for mulighetene for å ”lære kjønn”. Konklusjoner Kjønn får betydning i barns relasjoner på forskjellige måter i observasjonene fra 2008 og i Sigurd Berentzens avhandling fra 1967, og det antas at ”tokulturforståelsen” kan nyanseres. Først og fremst er jenter og gutter mye sammen, vellykket og over tid, i observasjonene fra 2008, noe som aldri skjer i 1967-studien. Samtidig leker gutter ofte to og to og jenter leker noen ganger i store grupper, samværsformer som gjerne er forbundet med det ”motsatte” kjønn i senere forskning og som heller ikke er rapportert om i Berentzens studie. En sentral forskjell mellom de to studiene er graden av ”forskjellighet” og mangfoldighet innad i barnegruppen. Barnekulturen fra 1967-studien fremstår som svært konform og forskjellighet eller avvik fra det normative blir raskt korrigert, gjerne i form av hån eller annen aggresjon. Forholdet mellom jentene og guttene er også preget av avstand, tabu og særlig konfrontasjon og aggresjon fra guttenes side. En del av det samme kommer til syne i observasjonene fra 2008, men generelt er forholdet mellom jentene og guttene i større grad preget av jevnbyrdig og inkluderende samvær. Barnekulturen kan også generelt beskrives som mer raus overfor forskjellighet. Læringsteorien fremhever hvordan kjønnede kulturelle betingelser blir en del av barnas handlingsrepertoar gjennom observasjon og bruk, samtidig som ”forskjellighet” gir mulighet for å kontrastere egne forståelser av gitte kjønnede betingelser. Altså en mulighet for refleksjon og selvregulering. Det konforme ved barnekulturen og særlig det noe tabubelagte ved kjønnskontrasten i studien fra 1967 reduserer muligheten for slik refleksjon blant barna. Dermed har barna andre betingelser for å lære kjønn i observasjonene fra 2008. Avslutningsvis blir disse lokale endringene forsøkt sporet og generalisert i teoretiske begreper som ”institusjonalisering”, ”barnesentrerthet” og ”refleksivitet” som kjennetegn på barndom i dagens Norge. De ansatte i barnehagen og deres pedagogikk samt massemedia tolkes som synlige autoriteter i barns liv i observasjonene. Disse tolkes også som ”representanter” for storsamfunnet, nåtidens Norge og dets oppfatninger og forventinger til barn. En analyse av disse sentrale autoritetene i barnas liv antyder at institusjonalisering og barnesentrerthet blant annet innebærer noen forestillinger om risiko som blir stående noe paradoksalt til samtidige forventninger om refleksivitet og selvstendighet. Mer konkret handler dette blant annet om en høy grad av kontroll, kombinert med en relativt ”kjønnsnøytral” forventning til gutter og jenters sosiale kompetanse. Særlig fokuserer de ansatte på barnas omsorgsevne og evne til selv å løse konflikter. Samtidig antyder noen funn at de samme autoritetene, både de ansatte og massemedia, noen ganger fremstår som sterkere formidlere av kategoritenkning og kjønnsstereotypier enn barna. Den åpne og kreative barnekulturen i observasjonene fra 2008 fremstår dermed noen ganger på tross av de ansattes og ”storsamfunnets” mulige tokulturforståelse. De moderne kompetansekrav til refleksjon, individualisering, kommunikasjon og relasjon/intimitetsevne som personalet formidler, ”overskrider” en tradisjonell kjønnsdikotomi. Samtidig ”henger” noen kjønnsstereotypier igjen i personalets kommunikasjon til barna og disse styrkes av media/kommersielle produkter. Slik oppstår både en viss ”dissonans” mellom barnekulturen og de ansattes og storsamfunnets forventninger til barna, og samtidig en viss tvetydighet i de ansattes og storsamfunnets kommunikasjon med barna

Identifying and characterizing risky play in the age one-to-three years

While research has investigated risk-taking in play for children from the age of four years upwards, less is known of risky play with children under four years. A small-scale observational study with children from five childcare settings with differing characteristics was undertaken to explore the occurrence and characteristics of risky play for children under four years of age, in relation to the current understanding of risky play. The study found similarities across the different contexts, which seem to reflect the characteristics of risky play for children aged one to three years. The findings suggest that the existing definition and characteristics of risky play are appropriate for two- and three-year-old children, but for one-year-olds, the study found discrepancies indicating deviations from existing definitions, indicating that the concept may not be so useful for this age group. To develop understanding of risky play, this article suggests new categories and an adapted definition.publishedVersio

Identifying and characterizing risky play in the age one-to-three years

While research has investigated risk-taking in play for children from the age of four years upwards, less is known of risky play with children under four years. A small-scale observational study with children from five childcare settings with differing characteristics was undertaken to explore the occurrence and characteristics of risky play for children under 4 years of age, in relation to the current understanding of risky play. The study found similarities across the different contexts, which seem to reflect the characteristics of risky play for children one-to-three years of age. The findings suggest that the existing definition and characteristics of risky play are appropriate for two- and three-year-old children, but for one-year-olds, the study found discrepancies indicating deviations from existing definitions, indicating that the concept may not be so useful for this age group. To develop understanding of risky play, this paper suggests new categories and an adapted definition.acceptedVersio

The Prevalence of Risky Play in Young Children’s Indoor and Outdoor Free Play

Research on children’s risky play and young children’s risk taking is a relatively new research area that has drawn the attention of many researchers in the last decades. Nevertheless, to our knowledge, no earlier studies have measured the prevalence of risky play when children can freely choose what to play, with whom, and where. Most research on risky play has also exclusively focused on outdoor play. This study aims at examining the occurrence and characteristics of children’s risky play, indoors and outdoors, in early childhood education and care (ECEC) institutions. Children (N=80) were observed in twominute sequences during periods of the day when they were free to choose what to do. The data consists of 1878 randomly recorded two-minute videos, which were coded second by second for the occurrence of several categories of risky play. Results revealed that risky play was registered in 10.3% of the total data material. The data is further analysed to explore distribution among diferent types of risky play, as well as diferences between gender, age and environment (indoors vs. outdoors).publishedVersio

Acquisition of the majority language in Norwegian ECEC: Relating language-learning environment in ECEC to expressive vocabulary

Developing proficiency in the language(s) spoken in any given society is crucial for the inclusion and attainment of children in that society. With an enrolment rate in Norwegian early childhood education and care (ECEC) of 93.4% for children between age one and five, ECEC constitutes an important out-of-home learning environment for children in Norway. In this study, we examine how the quality of language-learning environments in toddler and preschool groups predicts children’s expressive vocabulary in the majority language depending on children’s home languages. Data from the quality rating scales ITERS R and ECERS-R were used to model quality factors related to expressive vocabulary in toddler and preschool groups. The sample included 1,078 children (876 children with parents who spoke the majority language exclusively, 104 children with one parent who spoke the majority language and one parent who spoke another language, and 57 children with no majority language speaking parents). The results show that the quality of the language-learning environment in toddler and preschool groups is positively associated with expressive vocabulary in the majority language at age three and five, but only for children whose parents spoke the majority language exclusively.publishedVersio

Mapping of Fish Spawning in the North Sea; Report of the “KINO-2” Project for 2019

Increased and updated knowledge of reproductive strategies of fish is crucial to optimize the temporal and spatial planning for conducting seismic surveys; in order to reduce its potential negative ecosystems impacts. The overall goal of this study is to improve our general knowledge about spawning areas of major North Sea fish stocks, including their spawning behavior and spawning period. This report describes the methodology, preliminary results and experiences gained during the data sampling period August 2017 to December 2019. Molecular barcode and traditional visual taxonomic analyses were performed on eggs and larvae, systematically collected with plankton nets along a south to north axis in the North Sea. In total, 201 samples have been analysed from which 35 different fish taxa are identified. Based on historic data and previously published literature, our results agree with the expected number of the most prevalent fish species breeding in the North Sea. Both the taxonomic and molecular methods used, demonstrate robust and similar results in the identification of taxonomic groups. The results further demonstrate that the molecular taxonomic approach is more appropriate for identification to species levels for most taxonomic groups, whilst the identification of egg and larvae developmental stages can only be performed using the visual taxonomic method. The two techniques have the potential of complementing each other to provide a detailed description of the annual fish spawning cycle for the main North Sea species. Our results demonstrate that the fish species diversity increase northwards, but here the spawning season is more concentrated. We have also identified new species spawning in the area, traditionally found more to the south or west of our study area. To improve the spatial and temporal statistical data resolution required for achieving sufficient scientific evidence as basis for producing robust advice in timing of seismic surveys, modifications to the sampling protocol and equipment was made during 2019. Expectantly, this potential proves to work over the coming annual reproduction cycle. Our study also confirms that the study area represents a highly dynamic environment, thus we strongly recommend considering extending the time period for data collection, beyond what is planned so far (due out August 2020) and an expansion of the geographical coverage to include regions also further north and west.publishedVersio

Assessment of psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the sensation seeking scale for children in a Norwegian sample

IntroductionThe aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of a Norwegian translation of the Sensation Seeking Scale for Children (SSSC), designed for children between 7 and 12 years of age.MethodsA sample of 393 children (7–10 years old) were recruited to participate in the study. The SSSC was administered through interviews with each child, wherein their responses to the SSSC questionnaire were recorded on a tablet.ResultsAnalysis of internal consistency reliability did not show acceptable reliability for all subscales, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the Thrill Seeking and Behavioral Intensity subscales were associated and somewhat overlapping, while Behavioral Inhibition appeared as a single factor. A further explanatory factor analysis (EFA) revealed a two-factor solution. CFA of the two-factor solution resulted in the removal of some items in both factors due to low factor loadings. The final factors resulting from this analysis were Thrill and Intensity Seeking (13 items) and Behavioral Inhibition (7 items). The results also show that boys scored higher than girls on Thrill and Intensity Seeking while girls scored higher than boys on Behavioral Inhibition. Furthermore, age was positively associated with both subscales, meaning that older children tended to score higher.DiscussionThe results in this study suggest that measures of children’s sensation seeking might be sensitive to cultural contexts and that, at least in a Norwegian population, a two-factor solution of the SSSC is recommended

Virtual Risk Management—Exploring Effects of Childhood Risk Experiences through Innovative Methods (ViRMa) for Primary School Children in Norway: Study Protocol for the ViRMa Project

Research indicates that risky play benefits children’s risk assessment and risk management skills and offers several positive health effects such as resilience, social skills, physical activity, well-being, and involvement. There are also indications that the lack of risky play and autonomy increases the likelihood of anxiety. Despite its well-documented importance, and the willingness of children to engage in risky play, this type of play is increasingly restricted. Assessing long-term effects of risky play has been problematic because of ethical issues with conducting studies designed to allow or encourage children to take physical risks with the potential of injury.Virtual Risk Management—Exploring Effects of Childhood Risk Experiences through Innovative Methods (ViRMa) for Primary School Children in Norway: Study Protocol for the ViRMa ProjectpublishedVersio

Mapping of fish spawning in the North Sea — Report of the KINO-2 project for 2018

Increased and updated knowledge of reproductive strategies of fish is crucial to optimize the temporal and spatial planning for conducting seismic surveys; in order to reduce its potential negative ecosystems impacts. The overarching goal of this study is to investigate the current spawning times and locations for the North Sea fish stocks. Molecular barcode and traditional visual taxonomic analyses were performed on eggs and larvae, systematically collected with plankton nets along a south to north axis in the North Sea. This report describes the establishments of methodology employed and preliminary results based on samples collected during August 2017 to September 2018. In total, 129 samples have been analysed from which 22 different fish taxa are identified. Based on historic data and published literature, our results agree with the expected number of the most prevalent fish species breeding in the North Sea. Both the taxonomic and molecular methods used, demonstrate similar results in the identification of taxonomic groups. The results further demonstrate that the molecular taxonomic approach is more appropriate for identification to species levels for some taxonomic groups, whilst the identification of egg and larvae developmental stages can only be performed using the visual taxonomic method. The two techniques complement each other to provide a detailed description of the annual fish spawning cycle for the main North Sea species. There are already emerging patterns evident in the results on the timing for breeding in some species at certain areas. However, improvements of the sampling methodology are still required, and an increased number of samples collected systematically over an extended time-period must be accomplished in order to provide appropriate data as basis for advice in timing of seismic surveys.publishedVersio

Mathematical Modelling as a Proof of Concept for MPNs as a Human Inflammation Model for Cancer Development

<p><b>Left:</b> Typical development in stem cells (top panel A) and mature cells (bottom panel B). Healthy hematopoietic cells (full blue curves) dominate in the early phase where the number of malignant cells (stipulated red curves) are few. The total number of cells is also shown (dotted green curves). When a stem cell mutates without repairing mechanisms, a slowly increasing exponential growth starts. At a certain stage, the malignant cells become dominant, and the healthy hematopoietic cells begin to show a visible decline. Finally, the composition between the cell types results in a takeover by the malignant cells, leading to an exponential decline in hematopoietic cells and ultimately their extinction. The development is driven by an approximately exponential increase in the MPN stem cells, and the development is closely followed by the mature MPN cells. <b>Right:</b> B)The corresponding allele burden (7%, 33% and 67% corresponding to ET, PV, and PMF, respectively) defined as the ratio of MPN mature cells to the total number of mature cells.</p